Prentice Hall Introductory Sociology PowerPoint Slides, Version 3.0

1. Prentice Hall Introductory Sociology PowerPoint Slides, Version 3.0

2. SOCIAL RESEARCH

3. SOMETIMES A LITTLE RESEARCH INTO A SITUATION IS GOOD ADVICE!

4. TO BEGIN WITH, THERE ARE JUST TWO SIMPLE REQUIREMENTS: • LOOK AT THE WORLD USING THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE • A VARIETY OF SOCIAL BEHAVIORS CALLING FOR INVESTIGATION • BE CURIOUS AND ASK QUESTIONS • TAKE OFF THE “SOCIAL BLINDERS” THAT STOP MAKING ONE CURIOUS

5. COMMON SENSE VS. SCIENCE • POOR PEOPLE ARE MORE LIKELY THAN RICH PEOPLE TO BREAK THE LAW • YES, BUT WE TEND TO PROSECUTE THE POOR MORE, AND WE CREATE LAWS THAT SEEM TO ENSURE WE WILL PROSECUTE THE POOR MORE OFTEN • THE UNITED STATES IS A MIDDLE-CLASS SOCIETY IN WHICH MOST PEOPLE ARE MORE OR LESS EQUAL • THE RICHEST 5 PERCENT OF PEOPLE CONTROL HALF OF THE COUNTRY’S WEALTH • MOST POOR PEOPLE IGNORE OPPORTUNITIES TO WORK • IT IS TRUE FOR SOME, BUT NOT ALL POOR PEOPLE, AND KEEP IN MIND THAT HALF OF THOSE CLASSIFIED AS POOR ARE NOT EXPECTED TO BE WORKING (E.G., CHILDREN, THE ELDERLY, ETC.) • WORLDWIDE, MOST PEOPLE MARRY BECAUSE THEY ARE IN LOVE • IN MOST SOCIETIES, ROMANTIC LOVE HAS LITTLE TO DO WITH GETTING MARRIED TO SOMEONE

6. A LOGICAL SYSTEM THAT DERIVES KNOWLEDGE FROM DIRECT, SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION • CONCEPTS • ABSTRACT IDEAS THAT REPRESENT SOME ASPECT OF THE WORLD, ALBEIT IN A SOMEWHAT SIMPLIFIED FORM • VARIABLES • CONCEPTS WHOSE VALUES CHANGE FROM CASE TO CASE • INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES • MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES • THE MEANS BY WHICH THE VALUE OF A VARIABLE IS DETERMINED • “OPERATIONALIZATION”- THE PROCESS OF SPECIFYING WHAT IS TO BE MEASURED IN EACH CASE

7. RELIABILITY - THE QUALITY OF CONSISTENT MEASUREMENT • DOES AN INSTRUMENT PROVIDE FOR A CONSISTENT MEASURE OF THE SUBJECT MATTER? • VALIDITY - THE QUALITY OF MEASURING PRECISELY WHAT ONE INTENDS TO MEASURE • DOES AN INSTRUMENT ACTUALLY MEASURE WHAT IT SETS OUT TO MEASURE? • WHAT ASSUMPTIONS MUST BE MADE ABOUT ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY WHEN PERFORMING RESEARCH?

8. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN VARIABLES • CAUSE AND EFFECT • A RELATIONSHIP IN WHICH CHANGE IN ONE VARIABLE CAUSES CHANGE IN ANOTHER • EXAMPLE: OVERCROWDING CAUSES DELINQUENCY • TYPES OF VARIABLES • INDEPENDENT: THE VARIABLE THAT CAUSES THE CHANGE (OVERCROWDING) • DEPENDENT: THE VARIABLE THAT CHANGES (DELINQUENCY) • CORRELATION • WHEN TWO OR MORE VARIABLES CHANGE TOGETHER THEY DEMONSTRATE CORRELATION

9. CORRELATION CAUTION IF TWO VARIABLES VARY TOGETHER, THEY ARE SAID TO BE CORRELATED. IN THIS EXAMPLE, DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND JUVENILE DELINQUENCY INCREASE AND DECREASE TOGETHER.

10. CHECKING THE EFFECT OF A THIRD VARIABLE WHEN A THIRD VARIABLE IS CONSIDERED, IN THIS CASE THAT OF INCOME LEVEL, IS IT DISCOVERED THAT LOW INCOME MAY BE RELATED TO BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND DELINQUENCY RATES. IN OTHER WORDS, AS INCOME LEVEL DECREASES, BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND DELINQUENCY RATES

11. ORIGINAL CORRELATION DISAPPEARS THUS, WHEN INCOME LEVEL IS CONTROLLED (EXAMINE ONLY CASES WITH THE SAME INCOME LEVEL) DO THOSE WITH HIGHER DENSITY LIVING CONDITIONS STILL HAVE A HIGHER DELINQUENCY RATE? THE ANSWER IS NO. THERE IS NO LONGER A CORRELATION BETWEEN THESE TWO VARIABLES!

12. SO…WHAT DOES IT ALL MEAN? SPURIOUS CAUSE CAUSE THE FINDINGS LEAD ONE TO CONCLUDE THAT INCOME LEVEL IS A CAUSE OF BOTH DENSITY OF LIVING CONDITIONS AND THE DELINQUENCY RATE. THERE MAY BE A CORRELATION BETWEEN THE ORIGINAL VARIABLES, BUT NOW DOUBT CAN BE CAST UPON THE THOUGHT THAT ONE CAUSESTHE OTHER.

13. CORRELATION DOES NOT MEAN CAUSE AND EFFECT! • CORRELATION • TWO OR MORE VARIABLES CHANGE TOGETHER • CONDITIONS FOR CAUSE AND EFFECT TO BE CONSIDERED • EXISTENCE OF A CORRELATION • THE INDEPENDENT (CAUSAL) VARIABLE PRECEDES THE DEPENDENT VARIABLE IN TIME • NO EVIDENCE SUGGESTS THAT A THIRD VARIABLE IS RESPONSIBLE FOR A SPURIOUS CORRELATION BETWEEN THE TWO ORIGINAL VARIABLES

14. OBJECTIVITY • IDEAL VERSUS REALITY • OBJECTIVITY IS ALWAYS MORE OF AN IDEAL THAN A REALITY FOR SCIENTISTS • TOTAL IMPARTIALITY IS IMPOSSIBLE FOR THE RESEARCHER TO ACHIEVE • THINK IN TERMS OF SELECTING THE TOPIC OF INTEREST AND QUESTION FORMATION • MAX WEBER’S THOUGHTS • SOCIAL RESEARCH IS VALUE-RELEVANT • CONSIDER THE TOPICS/ISSUES UNDER INVESTIGATION • RESEARCHERS SIMPLY NEED TO TRY THEIR BEST TO ACHIEVE A VALUE-FREE POSITION IN PURSUIT OF THEIR CONCLUSIONS. • REPLICATION BY OTHERS IS ONE KEY!

15. SOCIAL RESEARCH HAS LIMITATIONS • HUMANS ARE TOO COMPLEX TO PRECISELY PREDICT ACTIONS • HAWTHORNE EFFECT ON SUBJECTS • THE AMOUNT OF DIVERSITY AND SOCIAL CHANGE FOUND IN SOCIETY RESULTS IN CONTINUAL CHANGE • TRUE OBJECTIVITY IS DIFFICULT, IF NOT IMPOSSIBLE TO ACHIEVE

16. CREATIVE THINKING IS IMPORTANT FOR AT LEAST THREE REASONS: • MUCH INSIGHT COMES FROM CREATIVE THINKING PROCESSES • SCIENCE CANNOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT THE RANGE OF HUMAN MOTIVATIONS AND FEELINGS • IN THE END, SCIENTIFIC DATA ALWAYS CALLS FOR A SUBJECTIVE INTERPRETATION

17. GENDER AND RESEARCH • ANDROCENTRICITY • MALE-CENTERED RESEARCH, OR APPROACHING THE TOPIC FROM A MALE-ONLY PERSPECTIVE • OVERGENERALIZING • USING DATA COLLECTED FROM ONE SEX AND APPLYING THE FINDINGS TO BOTH SEXES • GENDER INSENSITIVITY • THE FAILURE TO CONSIDER THE IMPACT OF GENDER AT ALL IN THE SUBJECT MATTER IN QUESTION • DOUBLE STANDARDS • THE SAME STANDARDS SHOULD BE APPLIED TO BOTH SEXES IN ORDER TO NOT DISTORT FINDINGS • INTERFERENCE • THIS OCCURS WHEN A SUBJECT UNDER STUDY REACTS TO THE SEX OF THE RESEARCHER RATHER THAN THE SUBJECT MATTER UNDER STUDY

18. FINDINGS MUST BE DISCLOSED IN FULL WITHOUT OMITTING SIGNIFICANT DATA • RESEARCHERS MUST BE WILLING TO SHARE THEIR DATA WITH OTHERS • PROTECTION OF THE RIGHTS AND PRIVACY OF THE SUBJECTS TAKING PART • SUBJECTS AND CONFIDENTIALITY • SUBJECTS MUST BE MADE AWARE OF THE TRUE PURPOSE OF RESEARCH • MAINTAIN AWARENESS OF ANY DANGERS

19. STRATEGIES FOR SYSTEMATICALLY CARRYING OUT SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH • EXPERIMENTS • HIGHLY CONTROLLED CONDITIONS • SURVEYS • QUESTIONNAIRES AND INTERVIEWS • PARTICIPANT OBSERVATIONS • JOINING IN ACTIVITIES OF GROUPS • EXISTING SOURCES • SECONDARY ANALYSIS OF DATA

20. WAYS OF REASONING HEY! THIS IS HOW THEORY AND RESEARCH METHODS ARE LINKED! • INDUCTIVE LOGIC • REASONING THAT TRANSFORMS SPECIFIC OBSERVATIONS INTO GENERAL THEORY • I HAVE SOME DATA HERE…I WONDER WHAT SENSE I CAN MAKE OF IT • DEDUCTIVE LOGIC • REASONING THAT TRANSFORMS GENERAL THEORY INTO SPECIFIC HYPOTHESES SUITABEL FOR TESTING • I HAVE THIS HUNCH ABOUT THIS TOPIC…LET’S COLLECT SOME DATA AND PUT THE HUNCH TO A TEST

21. SO MANY THINGS TO GET RIGHT! THE RESEARCH PROCESS • SELECT AND DEFINE TOPIC • LITERATURE REVIEW IS CONDUCTED • ASSESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STUDY • DEVELOP KEY QUESTIONS TO ASK • CONSIDER ETHICAL ISSUES • DEVISE A RESEARCH STRATEGY • COLLECT THE DATA • INTERPRET THE FINDINGS • STATE CONCLUSIONS • PUBLISH THE FINDINGS

22. THE TRUTH…NOTHING BUT THE TRUTH! ‘STATS WIZARD’ • WAYS PEOPLE “USE” STATISTICS • PEOPLE SELECT THEIR DATA • DATA MAY NOT BE THE WHOLE TRUTH • PEOPLE INTERPRET THEIR DATA • AS IF NUMBERS CAN ONLY MEAN ONE THING • PEOPLE SUE GRAPHS TO “SPIN” THE TRUTH • MANIPULATING TIMEFRAMES ON GRAPHS

26. HUMAN SOCIETIES

27. SOCIETYPEOPLE WHO INTERACT WITHIN A DEFINED TERRITORY WHILE SHARING A COMMON CULTURE OR WAY OF LIFE

28. VISIONS OF SOCIETYFOUR DIVERSE PERSPECTIVES ON WHAT ACCOUNTS FOR SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIETAL EVOLUTION • GERHARD AND JEAN LENSKI • SOCIETY AND TECHNOLOGY • KARL MARX • SOCIETY IN CONFLICT • MAX WEBER • SOCIETY AND “RATIONALITY” • EMILE DURKHEIM • SOCIETY AND FUNCTION

29. SOCIOCULTURAL EVOLUTIONTHE PROCESS OF CHANGE THAT RESULTS FROM A SOCIETY’S GAINING NEW INFORMATION, PARTICULARLY TECHNOLOGY • SOCIETIES RANGE FROM SIMPLE TO THE TECHNOLOGICALLY COMPLEX • SOCIETIES SIMPLE IN TECHNOLOGY TEND TO RESEMBLE ONE ANOTHER • MORE COMPLEX SOCIETIES REVEAL STRIKING CULTURAL DIVERSITY

30. THE WAY THE LENSKIS SEE THINGS TECHNOLOGY SHAPES OTHER CULTURAL PATTERNS. SIMPLE TECHNOLOGY CAN ONLY SUPPORT SMALL NUMBERS OF PEOPLE WHO LIVE SIMPLE LIVES. THE GREATER AMOUNT OF TECHNOLOGY A SOCIETY HAS WITHIN ITS GRASP, THE FASTER CULTURAL CHANGE WILL TAKE PLACE. HIGH-TECH SOCIETIES ARE CAPABLE OF SUSTAINING LARGE NUMBERS OF PEOPLE WHO ARE ENGAGED IN A DIVERSE DIVISION OF LABOR.

31. TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETAL EVOLUTION • TECHNOLOGY • APPLICATION OF KNOWLEDGE TO THE PRACTICAL TASKS OF LIVING • HUNTING AND GATHERING • SIMPLE TOOLS USED FOR EACH TASK • HORTICULTURAL • USE OF HAND TOOLS FOR CROP WORK • PASTORALISM • DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS • AGRICULTURAL • LARGE-SCALE CULTIVATION • INDUSTRIAL • USE OF SOPHISTICATED FUELS AND MACHINERY

33. SOCIETY IN CONFLICT • SOCIAL CONFLICT • STRUGGLE BETWEEN GROUPS OVER SCARCE RESOURCES • SOCIETY AND PRODUCTION • CAPITALISTS AND THE PROLETARIAT • SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS • INFRASTRUCTURE AND SUPERSTRUCTURE • FALSE CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS • PLACING BLAME ON INDIVIDUALS

34. THE CONFLICT PARADIGM

37. CAPITALISM AND ALIENATION • FOUR SPECIFIC WAYS CAPITALISM CAN ALIENATE WORKERS: • FROM THE ACT OF WORKING • NO LONGER HAVING A SAY IN PRODUCTION • FROM THE PRODUCTS OF WORK • NO OWNERSHIP IN THE PRODUCT THAT IS MERELY SOLD FOR PROFIT • FROM OTHER WORKERS • WORK HAS BECOME COMPETITIVE RATHER THAN COOPERATIVE • FROM HUMAN POTENTIAL • BECOMING A STRANGER UNTO ONESELF

39. THE HISTORICAL CHANGE FROM TRADITIONTO RATIONALITY AS THE DOMINANT MODE OF HUMAN THOUGHT • RATIONALISM, CALVINISM, AND INDUSTRIAL CAPITALISM • PREDESTINATION AND GOD’S FAVOR • FROM A RELIGIOUS TO A WORK ETHIC • RATIONAL SOCIAL ORGANIZATION • DISTINCTIVE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS THAT SEE TO MEETING THE DEMANDS OF A GROWING, COMPLEX SOCIETY

40. WEBER’S RATIONAL SOCIETYBUREAUCRACIES WILL BECOME THE FAVORITE FORM OF ORGANIZATION, AND SOCIAL LIFE WILL STRESS THE FOLLOWING: HERE ARE SIX WAYS A PERSON CAN TELL WHETHER OR NOT ORGANIZATIONS ARE MORE “RATIONAL” THAN “TRADITIONAL.” • DISTINCTIVE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS • LARGE ORGANIZATIONS • SPECIALIZED DIVISION OF LABOR • PERSONAL DISCIPLINE IS PART OF VALUE SYSTEM • AWARENESS OF TIME • TECHNICAL COMPETENCE • IMPERSONALITY

41. DURKHEIM’S VIEWS ON SOCIETY • SOCIETY • MORE THAN INDIVIDUALS • SOCIETY HAS A LIFE OF ITS OWN - BEYOND OUR PERSONAL EXPERIENCES • SOCIAL FACTS • ANY PATTERNS ROOTED IN SOCIETY RATHER THAN THE EXPERIENCE OF INDIVIDUALS • SOCIETY HAS AN “OBJECTIVE EXISTENCE” BEYOND OUR OWN SUBJECTIVE PERCEPTIONS OF THE WORLD • EXAMPLES: NORMS, VALUES, RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, AND RITUALS • POWER TO GUIDE OUR THOUGHTS/ACTIONS

42. EVER FEEL LIKE YOU’RE A PUPPET ON A STRING? EXAMINING SOCIETY • THREE ASPECTS OF DURKHEIMIAN THOUGHT: • SOCIETY HAS A STRUCTURE AND ITS VARIOUS PARTS EXISTS IN AN ORDERLY RELATIONSHIP • SOCIETY HAS POWER THAT IS DEMONSTRATED IN HOW IT SHAPES OUR THOUGHTS AND ACTIONS • SOCIETY HAS AN OBJECTIVE EXISTENCE AS IT OPERATES APART FORM ANY INDIVIDUAL’S SUBJECTIVE EXPERIENCE

43. WHERE’S THE GLUE? • WHAT HOLDS SOCIETIES TOGETHER? • LENSKIS • A SHARED CULTURE • KARL MARX • ELITES FORCE AN ‘UNEASY PEACE’ • MAX WEBER • RATIONAL THOUGHT, LARGE-SCALE ORGANIZATIONS • EMILE DURKHEIM • SPECIALIZED DIVISIONS OF LABOR

44. ARE SOCIETIES IMPROVING? • THE LENSKIS: • MODERN TECHNOLOGY OFFERS EXPANDED HUMAN CHOICE, BUT LEAVES US WITH NEW SETS OF DANGERS • KARL MARX: • SOCIAL CONFLICT WOULD ONLY END ONCE PRODUCTION OF GOODS AND SERVICES WERE TAKEN OUT OF THE HANDS OF THE CAPITALISTS AND PLACED INTO THE HANDS OF ALL PEOPLE • MAX WEBER: • SAW SOCIALISM AS A GREATER EVIL THAN CAPITALISM, AS LARGE, ALIENATING BUREAUCRACIES WOULD GAIN EVEN MORE CONTROL OVER PEOPLE • EMILE DURKHEIM: • OPTIMISTIC ABOUT MODERNITY AND THE POSSIBILITY OF MORE FREEDOM FOR INDIVIDUALS, BUT CONCERNED ABOUT THE DANGERS OF ANOMIC FEELINGS

45. “...THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ” • SYSTEMATIC • SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE THAT FOCUSES ATTENTION ON PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR • HUMAN SOCIETY • GROUP BEHAVIOR IS PRIMARY FOCUS; HOW GROUPS INFLUENCE INDIVIDUALS AND VICE VERSA • AT THE “HEART OF SOCIOLOGY” • THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE WHICH OFFERS A UNIQUE VIEW OF SOCIETY

46. REASONS FOR TAKING SOCIOLOGY • EDUCATION AND LIBERAL ARTS • WELL-ROUNDED AS A PERSON • SOCIAL EXPECTATIONS • MORE APPRECIATION FOR DIVERSITY • THE GLOBAL VILLAGE • DOMESTIC SOCIAL MARGINALITY • ENHANCED LIFE CHANCES • MICRO AND MACRO UNDERSTANDING • INCREASE SOCIAL POTENTIALS

48. OTHER WAYS SOCIOLOGY ALLOWS US TO SEE ANEW • ADVANTAGES OF A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE • SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL MARGINALITY • ALLOWS US TO NOTICE DIVERSITY IN AMERICA • SOCIOLOGY DRAWS ATTENTION TO SOCIAL CRISIS • IMPORTANCE OF THESE ITEMS • THEY ALLOW US TO SEE THE CONNECTION BETWEEN MICRO AND MACRO SOCIAL ELEMENTS

49. GLOBAL LINKAGE • SOCIOLOGY OFFERS STUDENTS THE OPPORTUNITY TO UNDERSTAND THE GLOBAL VILLAGE • ALL SOCIETIES ARE INCREASINGLY CONNECTED THROUGH TECHNOLOGY AND ECONOMICS • INTERDEPENDENCY OF NATIONS • MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS FACED BY AMERICANS ARE MORE SERIOUS ELSEWHERE • MORE AWARENESS • UNDERSTANDING GLOBAL ISSUES AND THE WORLD AROUND AMERICA ALLOWS STUDENTS TO BETTER UNDERSTAND THEMSELVES • FEWER ETHNOCENTRIC TENDENCIES

50. The Sociological Perspective OBSERVATIONS ARE CERTAINLY IMPACTED BY THE PERSONAL PERSPECTIVES THROUGH WHICH PEOPLE COME TO VIEW THE WORLD