The Problematique

1. GOVERNANCE AND STATE-BUILDING ROADMAPS TO HUMAN SECURITY IN NIGERIA Lecture delivered by Onyemaechi Augustine EkePh.D, mniia, mnpsa,

2. The Problematique Governance and state-building, paradoxically, constitute the major drivers of human security. This challenge calls for collective action beyond passive submissiveness. Cassius, in Julius Caesar, Act I, Scene II,lines 59-61, presciently admonished: Men at some time are masters of their fates: The fault, dear Brutus, is not in our stars, But in ourselves, that we are underlings. (Geddes and Grosset, 2001: 362).

3. Nigeria’s journey to national greatness and communal existence became threatened by multi-dimensional sources of human insecurity (Jelilov, Ozden and Briggs, 2018) of internal, external and natural characters as well as the absence of preemptive measures and ineffective management strategies. Human insecurity became a serious challenge threatening Nigeria’s realisation of the critical foundations of the United Nations’ ‘2030 sustainable development goals (SDGs)’ and the African ‘Agenda 2063’ (Aborisade, 2018).

4. Nigerian ruling class and their intellectually-captive scholars prefer to blame the slow human development and insecurity on colonial encumbrances in order to convince their unwary audience that the future had been pre-determined by the Europeans when other ex-colonial peers have dismantled the colonial vestiges and transformed into great and modern examples of good governance and human development. The state of affairs created lack of confidence in government and formation of ethno-religious militias for self-defence largely because of perceived sense of authority failures, service failures and legitimacy failures in mobilising the country’s rich diversities to transform from traditional-ethnic nationalism into modern-civic nationalism for good governance and human security.

5. Methodology The central objective of this paper is to conduct ethnological studies on the two security referent objects – ‘governance’ and ‘state-building’ and proffer policy roadmaps to human security in Nigeria. The paper relied on secondary sources of data for quantitative content analysis. It also made use of Johan Galtung’s twin peace-typology and the Foucauldian ‘governmentality’ as the two complimentary theoretical frameworks of analysis.

6. Methodology • Galtung’s classification of peace into negative peace and positive peace is particularly helpful in identifying the type of peace Nigeria needs to assure good governance and the improvement of human security. • Foucauldian governmentality insights provides the starting point for understanding “the relationships between calculative modes of governing through probability statistical regulation and dispositifs of security” (Ewald, 2002) in the Nigeria State.

7. Governmentality explains the art of governance regarding the organised practices such as cleavages, norms, attitudes, mentalities, rationalities, techniques and organisational foundations through which subjects are governed with particular attention to the doubt that the government seized by a dominant ethnic group could deliver “common good” (Matuita, 2018: 149; Sargent, 2009). • Faucouldian theory of governmentality is relevant to explain Nigeria’s multi-national, multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multi-lingual polity.

8. The theory is vital in the analysis of the ethnographic cause-effect relationship between governance and state-building in Nigeria to explain the need for security sector reform and political will as necessary conditions for positive peace, human development and human security.

9. Concept of Human security (What it is and what it is not)

10. Concept of human security • AmartyaSen and Human Development Report 1993 first mentioned human security as a post-cold war concept (Shinoda, 2004). • The groundbreaking UN Human Development Report (UNHDR) 1994 provided a systematic explanation of it and listed seven essential dimensions of human security as economic, health, personal, political, food, environmental, and community. • Human security became a new concept for understanding development in “people as the wealth of a nation” (UNDP, 1990: 9). • Human security as a concept is an extended form of state security and a tool of statecraft to guarantee and measure the priority of “freedom from want”, “freedom from fear” and “freedom to live in dignity.”

11. Concept of human security – Contd • The concept of human security does not oust or replace the traditional security concept. Both concepts represents rather different ideas how to respond to existing threats - Lioyd Axworthy. • The basis of the state security concept is sovereignty of a state • The basis of the human security is sovereignty of an individual. • State security paradigm conceives the state as both referent to security and a securitising actor;. • Human security paradigm takes the individual as a referent to security but not securitising actor.

12. Thecore objectives of human security: • transition to peace and sustainable development in fragile and conflict-affected communities; • protection and empowerment of victims of human trafficking; • responding to issues of environmental degradation and climate-induced threats; • reducing urban violence and its effects on health, education, economic, personal, and community security; • poverty reduction, social inclusion and community-based development; and • economic, environmental and social components of health- related insecurities.

13. Scope of human security • Human security assures the right of all people, in particular, vulnerable people to freedom from fear and freedom from want, with an equal opportunity to enjoy all their rights and fully develop their human potential (UNGA, 25 October 2012). • Human security is people-centred, comprehensive, context-specific and prevention-oriented responses that strengthen the protection and empowerment of all people and all communities. • Human security recognises the inter-linkages between peace, development and human rights, and equally considers civil, political, economic, social and cultural rights.

14. Scope of human security - Contd • Human security distinguishes from the responsibility to protect (R2P) and its implementation. • Human security abhors threat or the use of force or coercive measures. • Human security implies national ownership to strengthen capacities which are compatible with local realities (United Nations, 2016: 6). • Human security is a supplement to human development

15. Components of Human Security

16. Measurement of human security • Human ‘security’ finds meaning in its perverse corelate , human ‘insecurity’’. • Human security is an ideal situation and, in real situations, more quantifiable and context-specific indicators are easier used in measuring human security thrugh economic insecurity, health insecurity, personal insecurity, political insecurity, food insecurity, environmental insecurity, and community insecurity.

17. Measuring human insecurity in Nigeria • The seven components: • economic insecurity, • ;health insecurity, • personal insecurity, • political insecurity, • food insecurity, • environmental insecurity, • community insecurity.

18. Economic insecurity (e,g. low GDP per capita) • Monocultural oil-economy that is prone to production-pricing shocks . • poor external reserves and high debt profiles. • low average tax-to-GDP ratio of 6%, • low GDP per capita of $2,702.15/$25,000) • no fewer than 17 million housing deficits • unimpressive ranking on the corruption perception index (CPI) (148/180 in 2017, 144/148 in 2018 and 144/180 in 2019),

19. Economic Insecurity in Nigeria - Contd • average (high) lending rates of 11% between 2017 and April 2019, when compared, for instance, to Israel’s 0.25 or Japan’s 0.10 in April 2019. • Nigeria ranked 170th and 169th with an average of 42%, out of 190 countries on the Ease of Doing Business Index in 2016 and 2017, respectively (World Bank, 2017).

20. Nigeria’s average inflation rate is double-digit at 12.45% between 1996 and 2019. • unemployment rate of 23.1% and only 20% of graduates’ employment capacity. • 152 out of 190 (80%) population living below $2 per day. • 50% of Nigeria’s violent conflicts are resource-related and targeted at civilians (Kishi, 19 November 2014). • Nigeria ranked 6th most misery country on planet Earth in 2019 with average ranking of 157 out of average 172 countries between 2000 and 2017. • The disheartening indices , no doubt , show that the Nigerian economic development plans – seeAppendix, were driven to failure.

21. Health insecurity (e.g., lack of access to basic health-care) • epidemics, malnutrition, poor sanitation, lack of access to basic health care and the resultant low life expectancy. • increasing cases of mental depression of which about 7 million or 3.9 per cent of Nigerians were affected in 2015 (Sunday Sun, 26 May 2019: 13) and suicide (Sunday Vanguard, 26 May 2019: 24-25; Sunday Sun, 26 May, 2019: 13). • brain-drain which leaves the doctor-patient ratio at poor 1-5,000 while there are 6,312 Nigerian medical doctors in the UK as well as over 115,000 medical professionals and 87,000 pharmacists in the U.S. (UK General Medical Council Website; Nigeria Diaspora Day Website, cited in Koutonin, n.d.)

22. Personal insecurity (e.g., physical violence) • Out-of-school population between 8.7 million to 13.5 million pupils; 60% are females. • Low and discriminatory education funding. • Poverty as a result of low education and productive engagement of women in the North. • Criminal activities such as stealing, assassination, violence, espionage, kidnapping, gang-rape, illicit trafficking of arms, drugs and human, etc. • Ethno-religious –induced national security dilemma. • cyber-crime, cyber-terrorism, cyber-espionage, online child abuse and exploitation and Hacking.

24. Political insecurity (Violation of human rights) • Extra-judicial killing, summary executions and political murders of citizens, suppression of political opponents and civil society activists. • Election fraud-induced violence and aftermath. • Establishment of ethno-religious militias for group defence. • Nigeria was expelled from the Commonwealth Human Rights Group in 1995 as a testimony of human rights violation in Nigeria.

25. Food insecurity (e.g., shortages and hunger) • Challenges of erosion, desertification, increasing urbanisation, poor clean-up, remediation and rehabilitation of communities affected by conflict and environmental change as well as poor storage and destruction of food reserves in silos against per capita grain production and carry-over stock of grains (Eke, 2009). • Herder-farmer conflict. • Relegation of agriculture for oil economy. • Nigeria was ranked 40 out of 79 countries in the 2012 Global Hunger Index (GHI).

26. Environmental insecurity (e.g., degradation and resource depletion) • Desert encroachment in the North • Erosion in the South-East • Oil spills in the Niger Delta • Unbalanced ecosystem due to poverty-induced over-exploitation of natural resources. • Nigeria’s oil spills is the world largest between 9 million to 13 million barrels at the rate of 2,300 cubic metres and average of 300 industrial spills, annually.

27. Community insecurity (e.g., inequality and identity-based conflicts) • Feeling of unequal citizenship and destabilisation of social cohesion because of the constructed hierarchy between the ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘usurper’, ‘tolerated’ and ‘failed’ citizen . • indigene-settler communal conflicts . • Four major inequality and identity conflicts - Boko Haram insurgency, Niger-Delta militancy, Herder-Farmer conflict and the agitations for Arewa Republic, Republic of Biafra, Niger-Delta People’s Republic and Oduduwa Republic. • Farmer-herders conflict became the fourth deadliest conflicts in 2014 (Global Terrorist Index).

28. Ejiofor (2007: 85) rationalises citizens’ dissentient behaviours resulting from human insecurity, thus: “… in the verging propensity of lack of national cohesion or integration rooted in ethno-religious and linguistic schism, economic underdevelopment induced by corruption, unemployment, bad governance, absence of accountability and transparency and national leadership collapse, citizens took arms against the state and its populace…when the state is imposing restrictions or burden … and when the state fails to provide channels for the redress of grievances…when the state practices persistent discrimination, oppression… or misuse of its authority… it is dedicated to immoral ends, or aggressive purposes or when it is woefully inefficient and neglectful of most pressing needs, and when these evils can be removed or abated.”

29. The generation and escalation of the multiple violent conflicts, Nigeria’s ranking on the average of 152 out of 188 countries on the Human Development Index between 1990 and 2016 (UNHDR, 2016: 3)(See table 1) and the ‘ungoverned spaces’ the conflicts create are consequences of authority failures, service failures and legitimacy failures of state fragility implicit in negative peace. These are challenges requiring good governance and state-building.

31. Governance and State-Building in Nigeria

32. There are two sources of hope for good governance and state-building in Nigeria: • internally, has the potential to become a top 10 global economy in 2050 with 34% solid mineral, 84 million hectares of arable land for agriculture. It has the 9th largest gas reserve in the world to diversify the oil-single economy with a $6.3 trillion GDP at real growth of 6.6% per annum for human development of the estimated 177 million people at growth rate of 2.7% and average age of 18 years (LCCI, 2016: 6).

33. Externally, Nigeria has rich Diaspora to partner with for growth and development in areas of knowledge – pooling expertise and sharing information to achieve policy goals; standard-setting – drawing up voluntary standard operating templates; and service - initiating and realising priority projects designed to implement development goals through Diaspora transfers and public financing. • Nigeria has about 10 million people living outside the country. • They are the most or second most educated in their host-countries. There are over 115,000 medical professionals, 174,000 information technology professionals, 87,000 pharmacists, 49,000 engineers and over 250,000 legal, financial, real estate business professionals, etc (Nigeria Diapora Day Website cited in Koutonin, n.d.)

34. Nigeria Diaspora, for example, in 2010 remitted the sum of $12 billion to the Nigeria’s GDP, which is comparable only to the annual budgets of Nigeria’s richest states of Lagos and Rivers (World Bank, 2010; 2012).

35. Governance is the exercise of legitimateauthority for the public good (The World Bank, 1989). • The goal of achieving public good expects that authorities exercise power to improve public involvement and participation in decision-making and governance, institutional mechanism, adherence to the ideals of rule of law, civil liberty and human rights, efficiency of public institutions, transparency and accountability. • Governance is a basic social contract between the state and the society to assure human security: “The best way to stem the rise of violence and create a platform for sustained growth is to build a state that is capable of delivering basic services effectively and fairly…” (DfID, 2009: 69-70

36. State-building is a component of the peace-building.which refers to “purposeful action to build capacity, institutions and legitimacy of the state in relation to an effective process to negotiate the mutual demands between state and citizens” (NYU CIC & IPA, 2007: 4). • State-building is peace-building between former enemies through forgiveness, apology towards victims, using multiple levels of strategic peace-building efforts, ensuring economic conversion from tools of violent conflict to non-violent dispute resolution mechanism; and above all, transforming attitudes towards the “other” through the elimination of the distinction between “us” and “them” with the willingness to be patient, moving at the pace of all members of the society, sometimes, for every step, there may be two steps back (Pilpott, 2012; OECD, 2010: 22).

37. The Nigerian Constitution 1999, under the Fundamental Objectives and Directive Principles of State Policy, Section 14 (2) (b) logically provides for human security through people-driven and people-oriented security (security governance) with large array of security organisations and huge costs under the supervision of the National Security Organisation (NSO) and the superintendence of the President and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. • The challenge is that In spite of the huge security architecture and allocations for military internal security operations in Nigeria,, insecurity has precipitated into unholy proportion because of groups’ grievances resulting from social, political, economic and other forms of unfair treatment discontents.

39. There is the public perception that Nigeria’s investment in the Security Architecture brings deficits outcomes of security and defence, particularly regarding homeland security from internal crimes and violent conflicts due largely to military strategy in the absence of preventive management strategies.

40. Many years of Boko Haram insurgency, Niger-Delta militancy and IPoB secessionist movements, Nigerian government has stuck to militarism which has merely degraded, decapitated and disorganised the formal leadership centres of the groups, some of them turned into more dangerous, informal and multiple dens of hit-and-run bin-Ladins because of the emphasis on state-centric security rather than state-citizen peace-building to resolve the grey issues and assure human security through. • In practice, Nigeria’s effort to good governance and state-building has not been matched with the political will.

41. Bad governance and group grievances driven by inequality and identity-based conflict seem exacerbated by poor management of the violent conflicts in Nigeria: • on the Niger-Delta crisis, Major Adaka Boro was summarily executed, Ken Saro-Wiwa and other 8 Ogoni elders were mowed down in a guillotine, and Henry Okah was sentenced,; • on the Igbo agitation, 50 years after the civil war, post-war reconstruction, rehabilitation and reconciliation had been mere polemics with attempts to further humiliate and silence the group; • on the Boko Haram insurgency, their leader Mohammed Yusuf was killed in extra-judicial murder. • On the Herder-Farmer conflicts, the government prefer multidimensional military operations to constructive peaceful engagements.

42. The military approach (e.g., Operation Lafya Dole, Operation Python Dance, Operation Crocodile Smile, Operation Safe Haven, Operation Harbin Kunama (Scorpion Sting), operation Ayem Akpatuma (Cat Race), Operation Whirl Stroke, etc.) has helped to radicalise the groups into group militia with the security dilemma in which the government forces and the militias arm to the teeth against human security. The conflicts have created the “governmentality unease” from ‘ungoverned spaces’ occupied by ethno-religious militias and pushing Nigeria into fourth deadliest non-state conflict in the world. (GTI),

45. The persistence of human insecurity and national despair in Nigeria in spite of the huge cost of internal security has led to call for security sector reform. through a process of security governance. The aimed is to institutionalise democratic security governance with division of roles and responsibilities as well as commitment to a force structure build on National security policy that is useful, appropriate, affordable, and can rely on political and societal support for its acceptability.

50. The aim for security is positive peace.