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EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN

Bahan kajian pada MK. Pertanian Berlanjut. EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN. DAMPAK PESTISIDA. Diabstraksikan oleh : smno.jurstnh.fpub.sept2013. .. dampak lingkungan akibat pestisida ….

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EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN

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  1. Bahankajianpada MK. PertanianBerlanjut EFEK PERTANIAN TERHADAP LINGKUNGAN DAMPAK PESTISIDA Diabstraksikanoleh: smno.jurstnh.fpub.sept2013

  2. ..dampaklingkunganakibatpestisida…. Dampak lingkungan akibataplikasipestisida seringkali lebih besar dari apa yang “diperkirakan” oleh mereka yang menggunakannya. Lebih dari 98% dari insektisida disemprotkan dan 95% dari herbisida mencapai “sasaran” selain spesies-target, termasuk spesies nontarget, udara, air, tanah, sedimen, dan makanan. Aplikasipestisidamemberikanbanyakmanfaat, penggunaan yang tidak tepat dapat meningkatkan munculnyafenomenaresistensi hama dan membunuh musuh-musuh alami darihama. AplikasiPestisida dapat mencemari tanah dan air , ketika bahaninidisemprotkan kepertanaman, atau pembuanganlimbahnyakelingkunganbebas. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides

  3. .. Jumlah pestisida yang menigngalkan (keluar) dari daerah aplikasi nya (lahanpertanian) dipengaruhi oleh sifat kimia pestisida: kecenderungan untuk mengikat tanah, tekanan uap, kelarutannya dalamair, dan ketahanan degradasinyadilingkungan. Faktor-faktor sifat tanah, seperti tekstur, kemampuannya tanahmenahan air, dan kandunganbahan organik tanah, juga mempengaruhi jumlah pestisida yang akan meninggalkan area aplikasinya. Beberapa jenispestisidaberkontribusi pada pemanasan global dan penipisan ozon lapisan. Diunduhdarisumbernya:

  4. .. Dampak pestisida terhadaplingkunganperairan sering dipelajari dengan menggunakan model transportasi hidrologi untuk mempelajari gerakan dan perilakubahankimia polutandalamaliransungai. Pada awal 1970-an analisis kuantitatif dari air limpasan yang mengandungpestisida dilakukan untuk memprediksi jumlah pestisida yang akan mencapai permukaan perairan.Ada empat rute utama yang dapatditempuholehpestisida untukmencapai perairan: melayang di udaraketika disemprotkan; meresapkedalamtanah, atau resapan, melalui tanah; dibawa oleherosidanair limpasan; atau mungkin tumpah. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi kemampuan pestisida untuk mencemari air meliputi kelarutannyadalam air, jarak lokasiaplikasi dengan perairan, cuaca, jenis tanah, keberadaantanaman yang tumbuh, dan metode aplikasinya. Diunduhdarisumbernya:

  5. .. Banyak bahan kimia pestisida bersifatpersistendalamtanah, yang dampaknya dapat bertahan selama puluhan tahun.Penggunaan pestisida dapatmenurunkan keanekaragaman hayati dalam tanah. Tidak menggunakan bahan kimia dapatmengakibatkankualitas tanah yang lebih baik, efek lainnyaadalahKandungan BOT lebihtinggi, sehinggatanahmampumenyimpan air lebihbanyak. Hal ini membantu untuk meningkatkan hasil pertanian selamaperiodetahun-tahunkering, ketika pertanianorganik memiliki hasil 20 -40% lebih tinggi daripada pertaniankonvensional. Rendahnyakandungan BOT meningkatkan jumlah pestisida yang akan meninggalkan lokasiaplikasinya, karena bahan organik tanahmampumengikat dan membantu mendegradasiresidupestisida. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides

  6. .. Degradasi dan sorpsiresidupertisidadalamtanahdapatmempengaruhi persistensi pestisida dalam tanah. Keduaprosestersebut tergantung pada sifat kimia pestisida, keduaproses inijugamengontrol langsung transportasi residupestisidadalamtanah danair, dan pada gilirannya ke udara dan mencapaibahanmakanan. Degradasisenyawaorganik melibatkan interaksi mikroorganisme dalam tanah. Sorpsi (Serapan) mempengaruhi bioakumulasi pestisida yang diikatolehbahan organik tanah. Asam organik lemah telah terbukti lemah diserap oleh tanah, karena pH dan struktur asam. Bahan kimia yang diikatolehaprtikeltanahkurang dapat diakses oleh mikroorganismetanah. “Semakin lama residupestisidatinggaldalamtanah”. residu pestisida itumenjadi lebih tahan terhadap degradasi karena mereka kehilangan aktivitas biologisnya. Diunduhdarisumbernya:

  7. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Soil contamination • Pesticides enter the soil via spray drift during foliage treatment, wash-off from treated foliage, release from granulates or from treated seeds in soil. Some pesticides such as soil fumigants and nematocides are applied directly into soil to control pests and plant diseases presented in soil. • The transport, persistence or degradation of pesticides in soil depend on their chemical properties as well as physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil. All these factors affect sorption/ desorption, volatilisation, degradation, uptake by plants, run-off, and leaching of pesticides. • Persistent organochlorine pesticides (OC) in soils • Persistence of pesticides in soil can vary from few hours to many years in case of OC pesticides. Despite OC pesticides were banned or restricted in many countries, they are still detecting in soils • (Shegunova et al., 20071; Toan et al., 20072; Li et al., 20083; Hildebrandt et al., 20094; Jiang et al., 20095; Ferencz and Balog 20106). Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  8. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Sorption is the most important interaction between soil and pesticides and limits degradation as well as transport in soil. Pesticides bound to soil organic matter or clay particles are less mobile, bio available but also less accessible to microbial degradation and thus more persistent. • Soil organic matter is the most important factor influencing sorption and leaching of pesticides in soil. Addition of organic matter to soil can enhance sorption and reduce risk to water pollution. It has been demonstrated that amount and composition of organic matter had large impact on pesticides sorption. For example soil rich on humus content are more chemically reactive with pesticides than nonhumified soil (Farenhorst 2006). • Farenhorst, A. (2006): Importance of Soil Organic Matter Fractions in Soil-Landscape and Regional Assessments of Pesticide Sorption and Leaching in Soil. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 70(3), pp 1005-1012. • Sumber: https://www.soils.org/publications/sssaj/articles/70/3/1005 Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  9. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . High yield agriculture, as it is widely practised in Europa, depletes soil organic matter and will reduce sorption. • Fast sorption usually occurs in short time after pesticide application. With time sorption is much slower. However, it has been observed for many pesticides that increasing time, repeated application could increase their sorption and formation of bound, non-extractable residues. • Although bound residues are considered of low significance because they are inactive and nonavailable, it has been detected that they can release in some time. Change in soil pH or addition of nitrate fertilizers can induced a release of this residues. There exist also evidences that some organisms, e.g. plants and earthworms, can uptake and remobilise old tightly bound residues (Gevao et al., 2000). • Gevao, B., Mordaunt, C., Semple, K.T., Piearce, T.G., Jones, K.C. (2000): Bioavailability of Nonextractable (Bound) Pesticide Residues to Earthworms. Environmental Science & Technology 35(3), pp 501-507. • Sumber: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/es000144d Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  10. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. . . Water contamination Pesticides can get into water via drift during pesticide spraying, by runoff from treated area, leaching through the soil. In some cases pesticides can be applied directly onto water surface e.g. for control of mosquitoes. Water contamination depends mainly on nature of pesticides (water solubility, hydrophobicity), soil properties, weather conditions, landscape and also on the distance from an application site to a water source. Rapid transport to groundwater may be caused by heavy rainfall shortly after application of the pesticide to wet soils. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  11. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . During 90ies, herbicide Atrazine and Endosulphan were found most often in surface waters in the USA and Australia due to their widespread use. Other pesticides detected included Pronofos, Dimethoate, Chlordane, Diuron, Prometryn and Fluometuron (Cooper 1996). • More recent studies also reported presence of pesticides in surface water and groundwater close to agriculture lands over the world (Cerejeira et al., 20031; Konstantinou et al., 20062; Añascoet al., 20105). In general, the compounds most frequently detected were currently used pesticides (herbicides Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, Metolachlor and Trifluralin, insecticides Diazinon, Parathion methyl, and organochlorine compounds due to their long persistance (lindane, endosulfan, aldrin, and other organochlorine pesticides). • Cerejeira, M.J., Viana, P., Batista, S., Pereira, T., Silva, E., Valério, M.J., Silva, A., Ferreira, M., Silva-Fernandes, A.M. (2003): Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Water Research 37(5), pp 1055-1063. • Cooper, B. (1996): Central and North West Regions Water Quality Program 1995/1996. Report on Pesticide Monitoring. TS96.048, NSW Department of Land & Water Conservation, Sydney, Australia • Konstantinou, I.K., Hela, D.G., Albanis, T.A. (2006): The status of pesticide pollution in surface waters (rivers and lakes) of Greece. Part I. Review on occurrence and levels. Environmental Pollution 141(3), pp 555-570. • Añasco, N., Uno, S., Koyama, J., Matsuoka, T., Kuwahara, N. (2010): Assessment of pesticide residues in freshwater areas affected by rice paddy effluents in Southern Japan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 160(1), pp 371-383. • . Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  12. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • The geographic and seasonal distribution of pesticide occurrence follows patterns in land use and pesticide use. Streams and rivers were frequently more polluted that groundwaters and more near the areas with substantial agricultural and/or urban land use. Pesticides usually occurred in mixture of multiple compounds, even if individual pesticide were detected bellow limits. This potentially can lead to underestimation of toxicity when assessments are based on individual compounds. • High levels of pesticides chlordecone were detected in coastline, rivers, sediments and groundwater in the Caribbean island of Martinique due to its massive application on bananas plantations (Bocquené and Franco 2005). • Bocquené, G., Franco, A. (2005): Pesticide contamination of the coastline of Martinique. Marine Pollution Bulletin 51(5-7), pp 612-619. • Sumber: http://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/2005/publication-879.pdf Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  13. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Effects on organisms • Soil organisms and processes • Soil microorganisms play a key role in soil. They are essential for maintenance of soil structure, transformation and mineralization of organic matter, making nutrients available for plants. Soil microorganisms are also able to metabolise and degrade a lot of pollutants and pesticides and thus are of great concern for using in biotechnology. On the other hand, microbial degradation can lead to formation of more toxic and persistent metabolites. Although soil microbial population are characterized by fast flexibility and adaptability to changed environmental condition, the application of pesticides (especially long-term) can cause significant irreversible changes in their population. Inhibition of species, which provide key process, can have a significant impact on function of whole terrestrial ecosystem. • Fungicides were found to be toxic to soil fungi and actinomycetes and caused changes in microbial community structure (Liebich et al., 20034; Pal et al., 20055). • Liebich, J., Schäffer, A., Burauel, P. (2003): Structural and functional approach to studying pesticide side-effects on specific soil functions. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 22(4), pp 784-790. • Pal, R., Chakrabarti, K., Chakraborty, A., Chowdhury, A. (2005): Pencycuron application to soils: Degradation and effect on microbiological parameters. Chemosphere 60(11), pp 1513-1522. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  14. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . A ew studies show that some organochlorine pesticides suppress symbiotic nitrogen fixation resulting in lower crop yields. Authors found out that pesticides Pentachlorphenol, DDT and Methyl parathion at levels found in farm soils interfered signalling from leguminous plant such as alfalfa, peas, and soybeans to symbiotic soil bacteria. This effect, loosely comparable to endocrine disruption effects of pesticides in human and animals, significantly disrupt N2 fixation. As consequence increased dependence on synthetic nitrogenous fertilizer, reduced soil fertility, and unsustainable long-term crop yields occur. The observations also may explain a trend in the past 40 years toward stagnant crop yields despite record high use of pesticides and synthetic fertilizers worldwide (Fox et al., 20078; Potera 20079). • Fox, J.E., Gulledge, J., Engelhaupt, E., Burow, M.E., McLachlan, J.A. (2007): Pesticides reduce symbiotic efficiency of nitrogen-fixing rhizobia and host plants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(24), pp 10282-10287. • Potera, C. (2007): Agriculture: Pesticides DisruptNitrogen Fixation. Environ Health Perspect 115(12). Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  15. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Soil invertebrates • Nematodes, springtails, mites and further micro-arthropods, earthworms, spiders, insects and all these small organisms make up the soil food web and enable decomposition of organic compounds such as leaves, manure, plant residues and they also prey on crop pests. Soil organisms enhance soil aggregation and porosity and thus increasing infiltration and reducing runoff. • Earthwormsrepresent the greatest part of biomass of terrestrial invertebrates (>80 %) and play an important role in soil ecosystem. They are used as bioindicator of soil contamination providing an early warning of decline in soil quality. They serve as model organisms in toxicity testing. Earthworms are characterized by high ability to cumulate a lot of pollutants from soil in their tissues, thus they are used for studying of bioaccumulation potential of chemicals. • A recent review of pesticides effects on earthworms showed on negative effects on growth and reproduction by many pesticides (Shahla and D'Souza 2010). • Shahla, Y., D'Souza, D. (2010): Effects of Pesticides on the Growth and Reproduction of Earthworm: A Review. Applied and Environmental Soil Science 2010, pp Article ID 678360, 9 pages. • Sumber: http://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/aess/2010/678360.pdf Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  16. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • .Glyphosate, nonselective herbicide, and chlorpyrifos, insecticide, belong to the most worldwide used pesticides, especially on transgenic resistant crops. An integrated study on a Roundoup resistant soya field in Argentina showed deleterious effect of these pesticides on earthworm population. Earthworms avoided soil with glyphosate, their feeding activity and viability were reduced. Glyphosate and chlorpyrifos caused also several adverse effects at cellular level (DNA damage) that indicated physiological stress. Author concluded that the effects observed on the reproduction and avoidance caused by glyphosate could contribute to earthworm decrease, with the subsequent loss of their beneficial functions (Casabé et al., 2007). • Casabé, N., Piola, L., Fuchs, J., Oneto, M.L., Pamparato, L., Basack, S., Giménez, R., Massaro, R., Papa, J.C., Kesten, E. (2007): Ecotoxicological Assessment of the Effects of Glyphosate and Chlorpyrifos in an Argentine Soya Field. Journal of soil sediments 7(4), pp 232-239. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  17. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Other non-target species • Effect of pesticides on bees are closely watched because their crop pollination. However, little is known about the impacts of pesticides on wild pollinators in the field. In recent study conducted in Italian agricultural area, authors monitored species richness of wild bees, bumblebees and butterflies were sampled after pesticides application. They detected decline of wild bees after repeated application of insecticide fenitrothion. Lower bumblebee and butterfly species richness was found in the more intensively farmed basin with higher pesticide loads (Brittain et al., 2010). • Brittain, C.A., Vighi, M., Bommarco, R., Settele, J., Potts, S.G. (2010): Impacts of a pesticide on pollinator species richness at different spatial scales. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 106-115. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  18. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Impact of pesticides on insect is determined by the timing of application because susceptibility to exposure differs between species and at different life stages. Therefore, unconsidered agricultural practises can harm butterfly populations. • It has been shown that using herbicides to control of invasive plants can significantly reduce survival, wing and pupa weight of butterfly at treated areas. Author highlighted the importance of careful consideration in the use of herbicides in habitats harboring at-risk butterfly populations. Reduction of adverse effect may be reached by applications in late summer and early fall, post flight season and during larval diapause (Russell and Schultz 2009). • Russell, C., Schultz, C.B. (2009): Effects of grass-specific herbicides on butterflies: an experimental investigation to advance conservation efforts. Journal of Insect Conservation 14(1), pp 53-63. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  19. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Water organisms – invertebrates, amphibians, fishes • Pesticides can enter fresh water streams directly via spray drift or indirectly via surface runoff or drain flow. Many pesticides are toxic to freshwater organisms. Acute and chronic effects are derived from standart toxicity tests. Within the ecological context, sublethal effects of toxic contaminants are very important. For example, downstream drift of stream macroinvertebrates in common reaction to various types of disturbance, including chemical contamination and may result in significant changes of structure of lotic communities. • Downstream drift was shown for several pesticides such as pyrethroid, neonicotinoid, organochlorine, organophosphate insecticides or lampricides. Neurotoxic insecticides exhibited the strongest drift-initiating effects on stream-dwelling insects and crustaceans. Moreover, it was detected that macroinvertebrate drift can be induced even by short-term pulse exposures (within 2 hours) at field-relevant concentrations (already 7–22 times lower than the respective acute LC50 values) (Beketov and Liess 2008). • Beketov, M., Liess, M. (2008): Potential of 11 Pesticides to Initiate Downstream Drift of Stream Macroinvertebrates. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 55(2), pp 247-253. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  20. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . In ecotoxicologial risk assessment of pesticides, attention is also focused on the ability of treated aquatic ecosystems to recover. After pesticide application structural and functional changes in ecosystem were monitored. Whereas some species can be reduced, other may profit from lower predation and food competition. The time needed for recovery depends on biotic factor such as presence of dormant forms, life cycle characteristics, landscape as well as on the season when exposure occur. • It has been detected, isolated ecosystems were more susceptible to damage and community structure changed to lower biodiversity states. Recovery in these ecosystems depends on the availability of immigrating organisms (Caquet et al., 2007). Long-living species might not recover until very long time (7 months of experiment) (Beketov et al., 2008). • Beketov, M.A., Schäfer, R.B., Marwitz, A., Paschke, A., Liess, M. (2008): Long-term stream invertebrate community alterations induced by the insecticide thiacloprid: Effect concentrations and recovery dynamics. Science of The Total Environment 405(1-3), pp 96-108. • Caquet, T., Hanson, M.L., Roucaute, M., Graham, D.W., Lagadic, L. (2007): Influence of isolation on the recovery of pond mesocosms from the application of an insecticide. II. Benthic macroinvertebrate responses. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry 26(6), pp 1280-1290. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  21. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • Birds • Decline of farmland bird species has been reported over several past decades and often attributed to changes in farming practises, such as increase agrochemical inputs, loss of mixture farming or unfarmed structures. Besides lethal and sub lethal effects of pesticides on birds, concern has recently focused on the indirect effects. These effects act mainly via reduction of food supplies (weeds, invertebrates), especially during breeding or winter seasons. As consequence insecticide and herbicide application can lead to reduction of chick survival and bird population. Time of pesticides application plays also important role in availability of food. • Several practises (generally Integrated crop management techniques) can be used to minimize unwanted effects of pesticides on farmland birds, such as use of selective pesticides, avoiding spraying in during breeding season and when crops and weeds are in flower, minimise spray drift or creation of headlands. • Evidences of this important indirect effect of pesticides has been reported e.g. By Boatman et al., 20042; Taylor et al., 20063. • Boatman, N.D., Brickle, N.W., Hart, J.D., Milsom, T.P., Morris, A.J., Murray, A.W.A., Murray, K.A., Robertson, P.A. (2004): Evidence for the indirect effects of pesticides on farmland birds. Ibis 146, pp 131-143. • Taylor, R.L., Maxwell, B.D., Boik, R.J. (2006): Indirect effects of herbicides on bird food resources and beneficial arthropods. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment 116(3-4), pp 157-164. Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  22. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. • . Effects of pesticides and farming practises on biodiversity • Intensive pesticides and fertilizers usage, loss of natural and semi-natural habitats and decreased habitat heterogeneity and all other aspects of agricultural intensification have undoubted impact on biodiversity decline during last years. • Intensive agriculture • A current Europe-wide survey in eight West and East European countries brought alarming evidence of negative effects of agricultural intensification on wild plants, carabid and bird species diversity. Authors demonstrated that, despite decades of European policy to ban harmful pesticides, pesticides are still having disastrous consequences for biodiversity on European farmland. Insecticides also reduced the biological control potential. They conclude that if biodiversity is to be restored in Europe, there must be a Europe-wide shift towards farming with minimal use of pesticides over large areas • (Geiger, F., Bengtsson, J., Berendse, F., Weisser, W.W., Emmerson, M., Morales, M.B., Ceryngier, P., Liira, J., Tscharntke, T., Winqvist, C., Eggers, S., Bommarco, R., Pärt, T., Bretagnolle, V., Plantegenest, M., Clement, L.W., Dennis, C., Palmer, C., Ońate, J.J., Guerrero, I., Hawro, V., Aavik, T., Thies, C., Flohre, A., Hänke, S., Fischer, C., Goedhart, P.W., Inchausti, P. (2010): Persistent negative effects of pesticides on biodiversity and biological control potential on European farmland. Basic and Applied Ecology 11(2), pp 97-105. • . • Sumber: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  23. ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES. An impression of recent scientific literature. August 2010 .. . Taking a landscape in Great Britain as an example, it has been showed that impact of agriculture intensification on biodiversity differs among agricultural land use and depends on specific agricultural pressure like land use changes, land cover or crop management. Authors found out that, as result of eutrohication and N surplus, vegetation diversity surrounding cropped land shifted to a composition typical for more fertile conditions. However, species richness of plants and breeding birds were more affected by broad habitat diversity (Firbank, L.G., Petit, S., Smart, S., Blain, A., Fuller, R.J. 2008. Assessing the impacts of agricultural intensification on biodiversity: a British perspective. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 363(1492), pp 777-787.). The pressures of agricultural changes may be reduced by: - minimizing loss of large habitats, - minimizing permanent loss of agricultural land, - maintaining habitat diversity in agricultural landscapes in order to provide ecosystem services, - minimizing pollution from nutrients and pesticides from the crops themselves. Sumber: http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/363/1492/777.full Diunduhdarisumbernya: Pesticide Action Network Europe 2010 ………… 20/10/2012

  24. Dampakpestisidaterhadapperairanditentukanoleh : Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  25. .. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  26. .. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  27. . EFEK EKOLOGIS AKIBAT PESTISIDA Pestisida termasukpolutanorganikmikro yang mempunyaidampakekologis.. Berbagaitipepestisidamempunyaiefek yang berbeda-bedaterhadap organisme hidup, sehingga sulit dilakukan generalisasi. Meskipun dampak di darat akibat pestisida juga terjadi, namun jalur-jalur utama yang menyebabkan dampak ekologis adalah air yang tercemar oleh runoff yang mengandung residu pestisida. Ada dua mekanisme yang utama, yaitu bioconcentration dan biomagnifikasi. Bioconcentration: This is the movement of a chemical from the surrounding medium into an organism. The primary "sink" for some pesticides is fatty tissue ("lipids"). Some pesticides, such as DDT, are "lipophilic", meaning that they are soluble in, and accumulate in, fatty tissue such as edible fish tissue and human fatty tissue. Other pesticides such as glyphosate are metabolized and excreted. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  28. . BIOMAGNIFICATION:. Istilahinimendeskripsikan “peningkatkankonsentrasisuatusenyawakimiasebagaienergi-makananditransformasikandidalamrantai-makanan. Kalauorganismekecildimangsaolehorganisme yang lebihbesar, konsentrasipestisidadansenyawakimialainnyamenjadilebihbesardidalamjaringantubuhnyaatau organ tubuhnya. Konsentrasi yang sangattinggidapatdiamatipada top-predators, termasukmanusia. Diunduhdarisumbernya:

  29. ...EFEK PESTISIDA… The major types of effects are listed below and will vary depending on the organism under investigation and the type of pesticide. Different pesticides have markedly different effects on aquatic life which makes generalization very difficult. The important point is that many of these effects are chronic (not lethal), are often not noticed by casual observers, yet have consequences for the entire food chain. Kematianorganisme. Kancers, tumoursdankerusakanjaringantubuhikandanbinatang. GangguanataukegagalanReproduksi. Penekanansisteminnune. Kerusakansistemhormon (endocrine). Keruskaanseldan DNA. Teratogenic effects (physical deformities such as hooked beaks on birds). Poor fish health marked by low red to white blood cell ratio, excessive slime on fish scales and gills, etc. Intergenerational effects (effects are not apparent until subsequent generations of the organism). Efekfisiologislainnya, sepertimenipisnyakulittelur. Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  30. .. Degradasi Pestisida dalam Tanah… BEBERAPA JENIS pestisida menghilang dengan cepat di tanah. Proses mineralisasi senyawaorganikpestisidainimenghasilkansenyawa anorganiksederhana seperti H20, C02, dan NH3 Proses-proses mineralisasi (dekomposisi) inimerupakanreaksi kimia seperti hidrolisis dan fotolisis; katabolisme mikrobiologis dan metabolisme merupakanjalur-jalurmineralisasi. Mikrobatanah memanfaatkan residupestisida sebagai sumber karbon atau sumberharalainnya. Beberapa bahan kimia (misalnya 2,4-D) mudahterdegradasidalam tanah, sedangkanbahanlainnyalebihsulitterdegradasi(2,4,5-T). Beberapa bahan kimia sangat resistendan hanya terdegradasisecaraperlahan-lahan (misalnyaatrazin) . (Stephenson dan Salomo, 1993). Diunduhdarisumbernya: http://www.fao.org/docrep/w2598e/w2598e07.htm

  31. Pesticides in the Environment Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  32. Label WarningsEnvironmental Hazards Section • EPA requires pesticides be tested to assess their potential for harming the environment • Pesticide characteristics • Fate of pesticides in the environment • Off-target movement • Degradation pathways • Impacts on non-target organisms • EPA makes some products restricted use due to environmental concerns Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  33. The Environment: everything that surrounds us • Air, soil, water, plants, animals, people, in/outside buildings • Beneficial organisms, endangered species • There is public concern about the effect of pesticides on the environment Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  34. BagaimanaPestisidamempengaruhiLingkungan • Chemical characteristics of pesticides • Degradation methods • Pesticide movements during and after application • Special environmental considerations Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  35. KarakteristikPestisida : Kelarutan • The ability of a pesticide to dissolve in a solvent, usually water • Soluble pesticides are more likely to move with water in surface runoff or through the soil to groundwater Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  36. KaraktersitikPestisida: Penjerapan - Adsorptionbinding of chemicals to soil particles Higher with oil-soluble pesticides Clay and organic matter increase binding Decreases the potential for a pesticide to move through soil Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  37. PersistensiPestisida Persistence is another important characteristic when assessing impacts on the environment. Persistence is the measure of how long a pesticide remains active before it degrades. If you want long-term pest control, seek out a pesticide that’s persistent and doesn’t readily degrade. But realize persistent pesticides don’t break down for some time and they can harm sensitive plants or animals. Persistent pesticides also pose concerns for illegal residues on rotational crops that can pick up the chemical because the product was not labeled for that rotational site and no tolerance was set. • Ability of a pesticide to remain present and active for a long time • Provides for long-term pest control, but may harm sensitive plants and animals • May lead to illegal residues on rotational crops Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  38. Temperature Wind Humidity Higher Volatility = VolatilitasPestisida Volatility is a characteristic of vapor pressure. Depending on the temperature and humidity, and in some situations wind, a chemical changes from a liquid or solid state into a gas or vapor. As a vapor it can move off-target with the air flow. Increases in temperature and wind increase the potential for volatility. Also, lower humidity levels increase the potential for volatility. The tendency of a pesticide to turn into a gas or vapor Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  39. VolatilitasPestisida Fumigants are effective in their vapor state. The vapor is the form that moves through soil particles during a soil fumigation or through cracks and crevices in structures, or grain kernels in stored grain. However, under certain field conditions, some herbicides volatilize and move off-target, possibly reaching susceptible plants. Because the manufacturers have screened their products for this characteristic, they put volatility warning statements on labels. So look for cut-off temperatures listed for certain herbicides. This is also why soil fumigant labels require immediate incorporation and soil-sealing. • Fumigants volatilize and move gas through soil, structures or stored commodities • Several herbicides are quite volatile and pose harm when the vapor moves off target • Labels may state cut-off temperatures for application • Labels may require pesticide to be incorporated into the soil Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  40. DegradasiolehMikroba Understanding how readily a pesticide degrades and how it degrades are also important. Microbial degradation is a primary means for destroying pesticides in the soil. There are a number of microorganisms, like species of bacteria and fungi that use the pesticide as food. As the microbes feed on pesticides, they break them down. • Important means for destroying pesticide in soils • Some soil microorganisms use pesticides as food: Bacteria and fungi Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  41. Kondisi Tanah & DegradasiPestisida -warm soil temperatures - aeration - adequate soil moisture - fertility - favorable pH - adsorption Soil conditions that favor microorganism reproduction increase the degradation process. So, soils that are warm, have adequate moisture and a favorable pH provide the right conditions for rapid pesticide degradation. Also, soils with a good mix of oxygen, sufficient fertility and with pesticide adsorbed onto the soil, have increased degradation. Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  42. DegradasiKimiawi Non-living processes also cause degradation. Simple chemical reactions occur in the soil. Something as simple as the mixing of water and the chemical can result in hydrolysis that causes chemicals to break down. Again, soil properties and conditions affect which chemical reactions take place and how quickly. • Proses Non-biotik • Hydrolysis: a chemical reaction with water, typically with a high pH (alkaline) • Soil properties and conditions affect the rate and type of chemical reactions Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  43. Photodegradation The sun can cause chemical degradation. You’ve probably experienced the effect of photodegradation, where the sun is responsible for chemical breakdown, like when your nylon tarp wears out. Sunshine is very effective in breaking down chemicals. Remember, this is why you hang your laundered pesticide application clothing out to dry in the sun. Some chemicals break down so quickly they must be immediately incorporated into the soil. Others can only be used indoors where the sun doesn’t shine. • Degradasimolekulpestisidaolehradiasimatahari • Dapatdireduksidenganmembenamkankedalamtanah Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  44. PergerakanPestisida To understand how pesticides might impact the environment, we have to look at how they move from the application site to other sensitive areas. We’ll look at each of these pathways in detail. The major pathways are through air as vapors, dust or spray droplets, through surface water or soil water, or through plant or animal tissues removed from the application area. • OlehUdara • Vapor, particle, spray drift • Oleh Air • Surface runoff • Movement through soil • OlehObyeklainnya • Residupadatanamandanbinatang WSU Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  45. PergerakanPestisida: diUdara Spray Drift Spray drift is the movement of spray droplets in the air. The spray droplets are carried in the air beyond the application site. A concentrated dose of droplets that moves off-target can cause damage or leave illegal residues. To minimize off-target spray drift, labels state specific precautions. The label may require a mandatory no-spray buffer between the application site and a sensitive area. The label may stipulate exactly what size droplet classification can be used during the application. Wind speed conditions, both very low winds and high winds, may restrict applications. The label may require you apply a certain volume of spray. Aerial application may be restricted on some labels. Labels may have specific precautions listed for sensitive crops or sites, like schools and day cares. • Movement of airborne pesticide droplets from the target area • Check the label for precautions • mandatory no-spray buffers • spray droplet size requirements • wind speed restrictions • application volume requirements • aerial application restrictions • warnings for sensitive crop or sites Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  46. Spray Drift Factors Let’s review the four factors that contribute to drift. The applicator’s attitude is very important. The applicator assesses the site and concern level for drift. The applicator selects what application method and chemical formulation is most appropriate and sets up the equipment to either produce larger or smaller droplets. The applicator monitors the weather and makes the decision whether to spray or not. It appears from the picture here, that the applicator had significant drift from his turf weed control application. He made a very bad set of decisions. • Applicator attitude • Equipment set-up • Viscosity of spray • a liquid’s resistance to flow • Weather conditions Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  47. Spray Drift Factors The applicator must conduct a site assessment prior to any application. It’s necessary to identify any sensitive areas or areas of concern. Is there a need for a no-spray buffer to ensure that there’s no contamination of certain sensitive sites? The applicator must assess the weather conditions, such as the possibility of stable air conditions. What’s the wind direction and speed, and the temperature? You must understand these factors in order to manage the application to minimize off-target movement. Understanding the concerns for drift, the applicator selects the appropriate application equipment and sets it up properly. Ultimately, after all the planning and preparation, the applicator must make the decision to spray or not to spray. Applicator Attitude • Assess what sensitive sites are near the application area • No-spray buffer necessary? • Assess weather conditions: air stability, wind direction and speed • Set up equipment with appropriate boom height, nozzles, and pressure • Make decision to spray or not to spray Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  48. Equipment Set Up: Droplet Size The basic principle to understanding drift is understanding droplet size. Big droplets don’t drift. Small droplets tend to stay in the air for awhile prior to the effects of gravity causing them to settle to the surface. You can manage drift by managing the droplet size. Consider making larger droplets. Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  49. Spray Drift Factors You cannot change the weather, but you must be able to read the weather. Wind is a key weather condition that must be measured. Wind direction is the most important factor. You must know what is downwind. You’re going to have some off-target movement with any spray application, so you’d better know what’s downwind. You have to assess what precautions to take to protect that downwind area, when necessary. Wind speed affects whether you can determine wind direction and also affects how far the ‘driftable’ droplets move. When applying in winds that are below 3 mph, you can’t really determine the wind direction without using smoke or some other device. And the direction can easily fluctuate under low wind conditions. Droplets still move, but you don’t know where and you can’t take the necessary precautions. Applying in winds between 3 and 7 mph allows you to easily measure wind direction and you’re able to assess what’s downwind. Since you know some material is going to drift, take steps to minimize off-target movement. Excessive winds carry more product off-target and potentially reduce the effectiveness of your application. It may be unwise to spray under these conditions unless significant drift reduction measures are used. Weather Conditions – Read the Wind • What’s downwind? Direction • How far will it move? Speed • 0-3 mph: could be very stable with airflow, just not sure which direction the air is moving • 3-7 mph:manage for off-target movement downwind • >7 mph:carries more material off-target Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

  50. Spray Drift Factors Temperature and humidity affect the life of the droplet. As temperatures increase, droplets evaporate into smaller droplets. As humidity decreases, evaporation also increases. So you’d expect more ‘driftable’ droplets under conditions of high temperatures and low humidity. Weather Conditions • Temperature – droplet evaporates to smaller droplets as temperatures increase • Humidity – droplets do not evaporate as humidity increases Diunduhdarisumbernya: www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/PAT/Cert2008/NPCh7_Envirnoami.ppt‎

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