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CHAPTER 20

CHAPTER 20. Options Markets: Introduction. Derivatives are securities that get their value from the price of other securities. Derivatives are contingent claims because their payoffs depend on the value of other securities. Options are traded both on organized exchanges and OTC. Options.

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CHAPTER 20

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  1. CHAPTER 20 Options Markets: Introduction

  2. Derivatives are securities that get their value from the price of other securities. Derivatives are contingent claims because their payoffs depend on the value of other securities. Options are traded both on organized exchanges and OTC. Options

  3. Option Terminology • Key Elements • Exercise or Strike Price • Premium or Price • Maturity or Expiration • Types • American Options - the option can be exercised at any time before expiration • European Options – can only be exercised at expiration • Options Clearing Corporation • Guarantees contract performance

  4. The Option Contract: Calls A call option gives its holder the right to buy an asset: At the exercise or strike price On or before the expiration date This is a “long” strategy. Exercise the option to buy the underlying asset if market value > strike.

  5. The Option Contract: Puts A put option gives its holder the right to sell an asset: At the exercise or strike price On or before the expiration date This is a “short” strategy Exercise the option to sell the underlying asset if market value < strike.

  6. In the Money - exercise of the option would be profitable Call: exercise price < market price Put: exercise price > market price Out of the Money - exercise of the option would not be profitable Call: market price < exercise price. Put: market price > exercise price. At the Money - exercise price and asset price are equal Market and Exercise Price Relationships

  7. Example 20.1 Profit and Loss on a Call A January 2010 call on IBM with an exercise price of $130 was selling on December 2, 2009, for $2.18. The option expires on the third Friday of the month, or January 15, 2010. If IBM remains below $130, the call will expire worthless.

  8. Example 20.1 Profit and Loss on a Call Suppose IBM sells for $132 on the expiration date. Option value = stock price-exercise price $132- $130= $2 Profit = Final value – Original investment $2.00 - $2.18 = -$0.18 Option will be exercised to offset loss of premium. Call will not be strictly profitable unless IBM’s price exceeds $132.18 (strike + premium) by expiration.

  9. Example 20.2 Profit and Loss on a Put Consider a January 2010 put on IBM with an exercise price of $130, selling on December 2, 2009, for $4.79. Option holder can sell a share of IBM for $130 at any time until January 15. If IBM goes above $130, the put is worthless.

  10. Example 20.2 Profit and Loss on a Put Suppose IBM’s price at expiration is $123. Value at expiration = exercise price – stock price: $130 - $123 = $7 Investor’s profit: $7.00 - $4.79 = $2.21 Holding period return = 46.1% over 44 days!

  11. Stock Options Index Options Futures Options Foreign Currency Options Interest Rate Options Different Types of Options

  12. Profit Potential Investing in Stocks Investing in Options

  13. Notation Stock Price = ST Exercise Price = X Payoff to Call Holder (ST - X) if ST >X 0 if ST< X Profit to Call Holder Payoff - Purchase Price Payoffs and Profits at Expiration - Calls

  14. Payoff to Call Writer - (ST - X) if ST >X 0 if ST< X Profit to Call Writer Payoff + Premium Payoffs and Profits at Expiration - Calls

  15. Payoff and Profit to Call Options Investing in Options

  16. Payoffs to Put Holder 0 if ST> X (X - ST) if ST < X Profit to Put Holder Payoff - Premium Payoffs and Profits at Expiration - Puts

  17. Payoffs to Put Writer 0 if ST> X -(X - ST) if ST < X Profits to Put Writer Payoff + Premium Payoffs and Profits at Expiration – Puts

  18. Profit Potential of a Put Option Investing in Options

  19. Option versus Stock Investments Could a call option strategy be preferable to a direct stock purchase? Suppose you think a stock, currently selling for $100, will appreciate. A 6-month call costs $10 (contract size is 100 shares). You have $10,000 to invest.

  20. Option versus Stock Investments Strategy A: Invest entirely in stock. Buy 100 shares, each selling for $100. Strategy B: Invest entirely in at-the-money call options. Buy 1,000 calls, each selling for $10. (This would require 10 contracts, each for 100 shares.) Strategy C: Purchase 100 call options for $1,000. Invest your remaining $9,000 in 6-month T-bills, to earn 3% interest. The bills will be worth $9,270 at expiration.

  21. Option versus Stock Investment Investment Strategy Investment Equity only Buy stock @ 100 100 shares $10,000 Options only Buy calls @ 10 1000 options $10,000 Leveraged Buy calls @ 10 100 options $1,000 equity Buy T-bills @ 3% $9,000 Yield

  22. Strategy Payoffs

  23. Protective Put Puts can be used as insurance against stock price declines. Protective puts lock in a minimum portfolio value. The cost of the insurance is the put premium. Options can be used for risk management, not just for speculation.

  24. Table 20.1 Value of Protective Put Portfolio at Option Expiration Buy a Put to protect a stock investment.

  25. Covered Calls Purchase stock and write calls against it. Call writer gives up any stock value above X in return for the initial premium. If you planned to sell the stock when the price rises above X anyway, the call imposes “sell discipline.”

  26. Table 20.2 Value of a Covered Call Position at Expiration

  27. Straddle Long straddle: Buy call and put with same exercise price and maturity. The straddle is a bet on volatility. To make a profit, the change in stock price must exceed the cost of both options. You need a strong change in stock price in either direction. The writer of a straddle is betting the stock price will not change much.

  28. Table 20.3 Value of a Straddle Position at Option Expiration

  29. Figure 20.9 Value of a Straddle at Expiration

  30. Spreads A spread is a combination of two or more calls (or two or more puts) on the same stock with differing exercise prices or times to maturity. Some options are bought, whereas others are sold, or written. A bullish spread is a way to profit from stock price increases.

  31. The call-plus-bond portfolio (on left) must cost the same as the stock-plus-put portfolio (on right): Put-Call Parity If the prices are not equal arbitrage will be possible. To exploit the arbitrage you buy the cheap portfolio and sell the other.

  32. Stock Price = 110 Call Price = 17 Put Price = 5 Risk Free = 5% Maturity = 1 yr X = 105 117 > 115 Since the leveraged equity is less expensive, acquire the low cost alternative and sell the high cost alternative Put Call Parity - Disequilibrium Example

  33. CHAPTER 21 Option Valuation

  34. Intrinsic value - profit that could be made if the option was immediately exercised Call: stock price - exercise price Put: exercise price - stock price Time value - the difference between the option price and the intrinsic value Option Values

  35. Table 21.1 Determinants of Call Option Values

  36. Restrictions on Option Value: Call Call value cannot be negative. The option payoff is zero at worst, and highly positive at best. Call value cannot exceed the stock value. Value of the call must be greater than the value of levered equity. Lower bound = adjusted intrinsic value: C > S0 - PV (X) - PV (D) (D=dividend)

  37. Early Exercise: Calls The right to exercise an American call early is valueless as long as the stock pays no dividends until the option expires. The value of American and European calls is therefore identical. The call gains value as the stock price rises. Since the price can rise infinitely, the call is “worth more alive than dead.”

  38. Early Exercise: Puts American puts are worth more than European puts, all else equal. The possibility of early exercise has value because: The value of the stock cannot fall below zero. Once the firm is bankrupt, it is optimal to exercise the American put immediately because of the time value of money.

  39. Determining Option Prices • Three stages of discussion • 1) Assume risk neutral investors & equal probability of stock values between two extremes (not in text) • 2) Relax assumption of risk neutral investors & add uncertainty (appended by info from outside the text) • 3) assume stock values are normally distributed

  40. Pricing of options (risk neutrality & uniform probability distributions) • Valuing a Call • Stock pays no div and expires in 1 year • Two possible future values of the stock with equal probability • Probability distribution is rectangular shaped • With risk neutral investors use a discount rate = RF • Example • Stock price 50 or 10 • RF = 10% • Exercise price = 30 • Present Value of stock

  41. Value of call • this equation represents the probability (second part) * average value if in the money • Probability distribution for the call value is rectangular

  42. Value of put

  43. Relationships between option values and stock values • shift of stock price distribution to right • Now the stock value ranges from 20 to 60 (an increase in average stock price • E(VS ) = 36.36 An increase • E(VC ) = 10.23 An increase • E(VP ) = 1.14 A decrease

  44. Effect of changes in variance on option values • expansion of the range of possible stock prices • But same expected return of stock • This will isolate the effect of changes in variance • New range 10 to 70 • From the text example • E(VS ) = 36.36 An increase • E(VC ) = 12.12 An increase • E(VP ) = 3.03 An increase

  45. Conclusions about prices of options • 1) as stock price inc • Value of call increases & put decreases • 2) as volatility of stock price increases • increases the value of calls and puts • 3) given change in variance, $ price change of out of money options greater than in the money • 4) options more volatile in percent terms than stocks • 5) out of money more volatile than in the money

  46. Binomial Option Pricing: Text Example 120 10 100 C 90 0 Call Option Value X = 110 Stock Price

  47. Two state call option pricing call X = 110 Price stock = 100 Two rates of return on the stock are possible -10% & +20% • The price can then be $90 or 120$ • RF = 10% • Hedge an investment • buy one and sell other • Say buy stock and sell options • How many options to sell • spread for options if Stock = 120 call = 10 Stock = 90 = 0 • calc end value of portfolio • own 1 share and sold 3 calls • If stock goes to 90, have 1 share worth 90 • Owners of options will not exercise • Value of portfolio = 90 • If stock goes 120, have 1 share worth 120 • But owners of the calls want to exercise • They give you 110 each = 330 • But you must buy the stock at 120 • Must spend 360 and extra $30 • Net value of portfolio 120 – (360 – 330) • 120 - 30 = 90 • Portfolio = 90 regardless of stock price • Implies a RF return

  48. Implies a RF return if RF = 10% • Solve for option price that would give a RF return • Could do the same thing but reverse the transaction buy calls & short the stock • (Note no investment on your part) • If options sell for anything other than 6.06 then get an arbitrage situation • Market conditions will force the option price at 6.06 Binomial Option Model

  49. Two state put option pricing for a single period • since puts and stock price move opposite a hedge here would include a sale of both or a purchase of both • Use formula for # of calls to buy for the equivalent # for puts • again eventually solve for put option price • example need 2 stocks for 3 puts • If stock goes to 120 • Have two shares worth 240 & 3 worthless puts • Total value = 240 • If stock goes to 90 • Have two shares of stock worth 180 • Three puts worth 20 each = 60 • Total value = 240 • Use formula from above to solve for the value of the puts that will give Rp = RF = 10%

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