GOVERNMENT AND POLICY MAKING

1. GOVERNMENT AND POLICY MAKING The Rule Making Function

2. Government and Policymaking • Policymaking is the pivotal stage in the political process. • To understand public policy, we must know decisions are made. • Government agencies are at the core of policymaking. • Two-way process: • Upward flow of influence and demands from society • Downward flow of decisions from the government

3. Structures of the Political System

4. Functions of the Political System

5. Constitutions and Decision Rules • A constitution establishes the basic rules of decision-making, rights, and the distribution of authority in a political system. • Written constitutions important in political systems based on the rule of law • Constitutions contain sets of decision rules. • These are the basic rules governing how decisions are made. • Policymaking - the conversion of social interests and demands into authoritative public decisions. • Constitutions establish the rules by which this happens. • Constitutions confer the power to propose policies on specific groups and institutions.

6. Constitutions and Decision Rules • Decision rules determine • what political resources are valuable in influencing decision • how to acquire and use these resources. • Different decision rules have different attractions. • Inclusive rules (majority rule; cooperative rule) • Can protect against hasty decisions • But they can also give a minority the power to block proposals favored by a majority • The more inclusive the voting rules are the less likely it is that any decision can be made at all. • Less inclusive rules make it easier to reach a policy, but many interests may be ignored.

7. Constitutions and Decision Rules • The government (as a whole) and its component institutions have decision rules. • Numerous rules affect the policymaking process. • In modern assemblies rules about voting - egalitarian rules; one person, one vote • Dictatorships - decision making is hierarchical • Pure hierarchy: only the vote of the person at the top counts • Democracy favors decision rules that are transparent and stable. When decisions are made through equal voting, the inclusiveness of the decision rule still shapes the outcome.

8. Democracy and Authoritarianism • The most important distinction in policymaking is between democratic and authoritarian systems. • Democracy means government by the people. • Direct or indirect participation by the public • Institutions facilitate indirect participation: elections, competitive political parties, free mass media, representative assemblies • Authoritarian regimes - policymakers are chosen by military councils, hereditary families, dominant political parties and the like. • Citizens are either ignored or pressed into symbolic assent.

9. basic decision rules of political systems - both democratic and authoritarian - differ along three important dimensions: • The separation of powers between different branches of government • The geographic distribution of authority between the central (national) government and lower levels, such as states, provinces, or municipalities • Limitations on government authority

10. Separation of Government Powers • Theory of separation of powers • Locke and Montesquieu • Madison and Hamilton • Classic separation of powers theory • Argued there are two forms of representative democratic government • Presidential • Two separate agencies of government: executive and legislative • Separately elected and authorized by the people • Fixed terms; cannot unseat the other branch; each with specific powers • Coordination must be achieved to make policy • Parliamentary • Executive and legislative branches are interdependent • Legislative branch directly elected; prime minister and cabinet emerge from the legislature • Confidence relationship • Do not experience the form of divided government that is common under presidentialism

12. Separation of Government Powers • Not all democracies fit neatly into the presidential or parliamentary category. • France- “semi-presidential” • In some mixed types, the president and the legislature are separately elected, but the president has the power to dissolve the legislature. • In such systems, the cabinet may be appointed by the president, but subject to dismissal by the legislature. • Debates have emerged as to the “best” system.

13. Geographic Distribution of Government Power • Confederal - U.S. under the Articles of Confederation • Federal - U.S., Germany, Russia, India, Nigeria, Mexico, and Brazil • Unitary - Britain, France, China, Japan and Iran • Most of the world’s states are unitary • Only 18 states are federal

15. Geographic Distribution of Government Power • Federalism is commonly thought to have several advantages: • In culturally divided societies it may help protect ethnic, linguistic, or religious minorities, particularly if they are geographically concentrated. • Serve as a check on overly ambitious rules and thus protect markets and citizen freedoms • May allow subunits to experiment with different policy programs • But it promotes choice and diversity at the expense of equality. • Sometimes there is a discrepancy between formal and actual federalism: Mexico

16. Limitations on Government Power • Constitutional regimes • Civil rights protected • Courts are crucial to the limitations on governmental power. • Judicial review • Lijphart characterizes only four of the 36 democratic systems he examines as having “strong” judicial review. • Often in constitution but harder to implement in practice • Amending procedures • Vary widely

18. Checking the Top Policymakers • Challenge: control the excesses of the top political leaders • Authoritarian systems: problematic • Representative Democracies: procedures vary between types of systems • Parliamentary system: removed virtually at any time • Presidential system: impeachment • Associated with constitutions having powerful presidencies with fixed terms of office • Direct Ultimate control of democratic order is periodic and competitive elections. • Direct Democracy – the people as the check

19. Assembly Functions • Deliberate, debate, and vote on policies that come before them. • Control public spending decisions (sort of) • Some have important appointment powers. • Some may serve as a court of appeals. • Range in terms of their role as policymaking agencies: • U.S. - highly active role; National People’s • Congress of the People’s Republic of China, rubberstamp function • Assemblies should not be viewed only as legislative bodies.

20. Functions of the Chief Executive • Typically the most important structure in policymaking • The executive normally initiates new policies. • May have role in adoption • Typically has veto powers • Oversees policy implementation • Recruitment function • Conduct affects trust and confidence in the political system • Central role in communication, in explaining and building support for new policies • Improving the performance in various sectors of society and economy

21. Political Executives • In modern states, the executive branch is by far the largest, the most complex, and typically the most powerful branch of government. • Chief executives • Single or split • Divided between effective power over policy, purely ceremonial roles or both • Presidents and Prime Ministers • Chairman of the Communist Party in China • Monarchs • Advantages the split system

23. Recruitment of Chief Executives • Recruitment structures • Competitive party systems • Noncompetitive parties and military organizations • Authoritarian systems rarely have effective procedures for leadership succession. • Poorer nations show substantially less stability and the regimes have usually had less experience at surviving succession crises. • African nations: repeated coups

25. The Cabinet • In some political systems, the Cabinet is the most important collective decision-making body. • Very powerful in parliamentary systems • Selection • Presidential systems: presidential prerogative with legislative approval; President can dismiss Cabinet members; legislature severely limited in this area • Parliamentary systems: formation depends on the result of parliamentary elections and on the composition of Parliament • Majority single-party cabinet • Coalition cabinet