PYB1: Introducing Psychology: Key Approaches and the Study of Psychology

1. PYB1 Approaches PYB1: Introducing Psychology: Key Approaches and the Study of Psychology Revision Material

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3. PYB1 Approaches Scientific and Common sense explanations (1) Scientific Explanations: �use rigorous methods, including laboratory experiments �use precise measurement of behaviour & attitudes t o collect evidence & data �are more likely to produce evidence you can trust �are objective �are based on theories & hypotheses �use experiments & investigations for evidence

4. PYB1 Approaches Scientific and Common sense explanations (2) Common sense explanations: �are subjective �are based on anecdotes & personal opinions �use everyday observations for evidence �are less likely to produce evidence you can trust

5. PYB1 Approaches Key Approaches and the Development of Psychology in an Historical Context

6. PYB1 Approaches (1) Key figures and their influence on the development of psychology

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8. PYB1 Approaches Wilhelm Wundt � key influences on psychology (1) Regarded as �Founding father of Psychology�. Wanted to establish Psychology as a separate/independent discipline. Created the first psychology laboratory at Leipzig � this influenced development of the subject and other laboratories were set up in Europe, Great Britain and USA.

9. PYB1 Approaches Wilhelm Wundt � key influences on psychology (2) His methods (e.g. introspection = carefully analysing own thoughts & feelings) not seen as objective but idea that people need to be studied under controlled conditions is highly influential. Regarded experimental method as only one to be used in Psychology, emphasis on measurement & control � this made psychology more scientific. This also led to rise of behaviourism in reaction to use of introspection. Influenced next generation of psychologists through development of structuralism � Edward Titchener (trained by Wundt) influenced development of Psychology in USA.

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11. PYB1 Approaches Charles Darwin � key influences on psychology (1) Theory of evolution � showed humans evolved in same way as other mammals. The difference between humans & animals is difference not kind. Led to many psychologists (especially behaviourists) studying the behaviour of rats, pigeons, cats & monkeys. Behaviourists argue that because humans have same evolutionary background as other animals, that principles explaining animal behaviour also apply to humans. Ideas about adaptation of the species being linked to survival/ part of our instinctive responses � ideas about universality of behaviour influenced behaviourism.

12. PYB1 Approaches Charles Darwin � key influences on psychology (2) Influenced development of Evolutionary Psychology. Evolutionary psychologists try to explain behaviour in terms of how people adapt to a constantly changing environment. Examine idea the genes not only influence physical characteristics (e.g. height) but also psychological characteristics (e.g. aggressiveness, musical ability) Influenced Freud�s theories � especially importance of sexual instinct. Sexual instinct = central to Darwin�s Theory of Evolution & also to Freud�s theories.

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14. PYB1 Approaches Sigmund Freud � key influences on psychology (1) Emphasis on unconscious drives. Assumption that much of our mental life happens at an unconscious level � changed the way people viewed themselves. This influenced many other psychologists who used psychodynamic approach (e.g. Carl Jung, Erik Erikson & Anna Freud.) Acceptance that early childhood experiences are important in determining adult personality. He developed the idea of stages of development in childhood which were a result of the sexual instinct (psychosexual development). Influenced developmental psychologists (e.g. Piaget & Kohlberg.)

15. PYB1 Approaches Sigmund Freud � key influences on psychology (2) Idea that painful/traumatic experiences in childhood may have effects in adult life, e.g. if child is separated from their mother for significant periods of time (maternal deprivation � investigated by Bowlby). Influence of psychodynamic approach on psychiatry & development of different therapies to treat people who suffer mental problems. Freud pioneered use of a psychological approach to treating mental disorders (psychoanalysis) � has had lasting effect on psychology & psychiatry. Also developed techniques like free-association.

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17. PYB1 Approaches B.F.Skinner � key influences on psychology (1) Very scientific nature of the approach has influenced all areas of psychology (use of experiments/laboratory conditions). E.g. cognitive psychology, social psychology and developmental psychology all use experimental method (although they use humans instead of animals). Scientific approach also influenced psychology to focus on observable, objective measures of behaviour (= move away from Wundt�s introspection). Insistence on scientific method gave psychology respect.

18. PYB1 Approaches B.F.Skinner � key influences on psychology (2) Development of behaviourism through theory of operant conditioning. Theories of reinforcement � learning through consequences. Emphasis on stimulus-response. Emphasis on learning from the environment/ nurture. Behaviourist approach dominated psychology from c1920-1950s - influenced educational policy � achievement in education is result of creating the right learning environment.

19. PYB1 Approaches B.F.Skinner � key influences on psychology (3) Practical applications. Behaviourist principles are used effectively to treat people with phobias, anxiety disorders and obsessive-compulsive disorders, through systematic desensitisation therapy (gradually exposed to more threatening situations). (N.B. Some psychologists, e.g. psychodynamic, argue this only treats symptoms not cause of problem.)

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21. PYB1 Approaches Carl Rogers � key influences on psychology(1) Theory of free-will. Humanistic psychologists see the person as an active agent who is able to change & determine their own development. (= contrast to behaviourist view which sees people as passively responding to stimuli from the environment.) Seeing people as active means each individual is responsible for their own actions and for their personal growth. Humanistic psychology has had great influence on psychology by promoting idea of personal growth (idea of self-actualisation).

22. PYB1 Approaches Carl Rogers � key influences on psychology (2) View of each person as unique and individual. Each person has their own individual needs. To understand someone need an in depth knowledge of their life experiences and present feelings. Recognises importance of the subjective experience of the person. (Focus on the self). Humanistic psychology is non-scientific approach (= contrast to behaviourist) = not trying to be objective. Problem in some ways as lack of scientific evidence to support theories of humanistic approach. Impact on therapy � development of person-centred/client-centred therapy.

23. PYB1 Approaches (2) Key approaches: psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic and cognitive

24. PYB1 Approaches Psychodynamic Approach � Key Features (1)Emphasis on unconscious mind Emphasis on unconscious mental processes as main motivation of behaviour. Recognition of unconscious mind and unconscious processes. Emphasis on instinctual urges/drives (e.g. eros, thanatos). Determinism (opposite to free-will)

25. PYB1 Approaches Psychodynamic Approach � Key Features (2)Focus on childhood/psychosexual development Focus on childhood, importance of inter-personal relationships in psychological development. Psychosexual development � child progresses through five stages � oral, anal, phallic, latency & genital If child experiences problems or great pleasure can result in fixation at that stage. If an adult becomes stressed in later life can lead to regression to an earlier stage.

26. PYB1 Approaches Psychodynamic Approach � Key Features (3) Freud�s theory of personality Tripartite division of self (id, ego, superego). Id = in the unconscious mind, works on the pleasure principle, includes innate sexual & aggressive instincts. Ego = in conscious rational mind, works on reality principle, develops in first 2 years of life. Superego = child�s conscience (sense of right and wrong), develops about age 5 when child adopts many values of same sex parent.

27. PYB1 Approaches Psychodynamic Approach � Key Features (4) Defence Mechanisms Freud believed that there were frequent conflicts among id, ego & superego (especially between id & superego). These conflicts lead to anxiety & the ego protects itself by using Defence mechanisms. Examples of defence mechanisms include repression, displacement, projection, denial, intellectualisation.

28. PYB1 Approaches Behaviourist Approach � Key Features (1) Operant Conditioning Operant conditioning (e.g. Skinner box experiment). Understand behaviour through stimulus-response. Role of reinforcement and punishment � learning through consequences. Reinforcement means behaviour = more likely to be repeated, Punishment means behaviour = less likely to be repeated. Reward. Generalise from animals to humans. Behaviour determined by environment (no free will).

29. PYB1 Approaches Behaviourist Approach � Key Features (2) Learning by Association John Watson - �Little Albert� = experiment in classical conditioning � can fear be taught? Results showed evidence of learning by association. Infant Albert shown neutral stimuli from 9 months old (rat, rabbit etc), when linked with unconditioned stimulus (striking an iron bar) began to show fear (= conditioned response) of a range of associated items.

30. PYB1 Approaches Behaviourist Approach � Key Features (3) Scientific Approach Rejection of introspection � more scientific approach. Objectivity. Focus on observable behaviour only, not interested in �unobservables� (e.g. thoughts & feelings.)

31. PYB1 Approaches Humanistic Approach � Key Features(1) Self-actualisation/uniqueness Human behaviour is influenced by a person�s need to fulfil his or her potential. Focus on self and self-actualisation, refer to theorists e.g. Rogers & Maslow, inc. hierarchy of human need. Each person is unique � should focus on subjective experience (=ideographic approach) Importance of unconditional positive regard.

32. PYB1 Approaches Humanistic Approach � Key Features(2) Client-centred/person centred approach Client-centred/person centred approach. Holism, the notion of the conscious and unconscious mind and the relationship between them � the conscious mind acts as controlling factor. Ideas concerning the possibility of free will allows an individual to make choices about their life and which helps them to achieve their potential.

33. PYB1 Approaches Humanistic Approach � Key Features(3) Non-scientific approach Rejection of scientific methodology and reliance on case studies. Comparison with other approaches: individual nature of approach = more ethical than approaches with more scientific approach e.g. cognitive � these have been accused of dehumanising individuals by studying them in laboratory settings. Lack of research in humanism makes it difficult to test the validity of the approach.

34. PYB1 Approaches Cognitive Approach � Key Features(1) Humans as information processors Emphasis on unconscious mental processes as main motivation of behaviour. Humans as information processors. Information processing means information from the environment is processed in an organised way � coded, interpreted, stored & retrieved � e.g. memory. Concern with internal processes which are involved in making a response to a problem which is presented by the environment � these internal processes are associated with thinking and problem solving. The mind acts as a mediator between the stimulus and the response, the mind and body are separate, the mind is active and the body is passive.

35. PYB1 Approaches Cognitive Approach � Key Features(2) Scientific approach Cognitive psychologists create models to represent thinking processes. Controlled laboratory experiments are conducted from which inferences are made about cognitive processes. Comparison to other approaches: addresses limitations of behaviourist approach (S-R emphasis), contrasts with humanists� individual approach to human thought processes, doesn�t recognise unconscious mechanisms which are important to the psychoanalytic approach. Fails to take account of other processes such as emotion & motivation.