Introduction

1. These slides contain: Summaries of some of the main contents of European Dictatorships (with page references) Additional material: Historical Historiographical Instructions. Go on to Slide Show > View Show. This will activate: Slide transitions Slide and box animations Hyperlinks within this PowerPoint Links to other websites for: Illustrations Text Other links Title page follows Introduction

2. EUROPEAN DICTATORSHIPS1918 - 1945THIRD EDITION ROUTLEDGE 2008 Supporting PowerPoint2 Types of Dictatorship STEPHEN J. LEE

3. Outline of the argument of Chapter 2

4. Introduction to the overall argument of Chapter 2(Details in European Dictatorships 25-38) DICTATORSHIP IS A GENERIC TERM, CONSISTING OF TWO MAIN TYPES: • Totalitarian • Normally associated with two ideological systems 2. Authoritarian a. Communism Ideology usually absent, unless in traditionalist form b. Fascism/Nazism

5. Summary of argument of Chapter 2: Types of dictatorship(Details in European Dictatorships 37-8) LEVEL 1 GENERIC TERM: DICTATORSHIP Level 2: generic type Totalitarian Level 2: generic type Authoritarian Level 3: ideological system Communism Level 3: ideological system Usually absent Examples: Spain Portugal Austria Hungary Poland Baltic States Albania Yugoslavia Romania Bulgaria Greece Turkey Examples: Russia 1918-24 Russia 1924-53 Level 3: ideological system Fascism/Nazism Examples: Italy 1922-45 Germany 1933-45

6. Part 1What is the meaning of ‘dictatorship’?

7. The meaning of ‘dictatorship?’(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 25-6) RESTRICTED APPROACH OPEN APPROACH Original definition (Roman): Temporary grant by Senate of exceptional powers to deal with an emergency. Modern definition (CURTIS): Essential ingredient is power; an emergency is not necessarily present. Modern definition (BUCCHEIM): Temporary device: short-term suspension of democratic processes when quick and vigorous action necessary. Modern definition (BROOKER): Emergence since World War I of a regime with an official ideology and political party; ideological one-party state Modern definition (LINZ): Interim crisis government which has not institutionalised Itself, breaking from previous regime – democratic, traditional or authoritarian.

8. Part 2What types of ‘dictatorship’ were there between 1918 and 1945?

9. Authoritarian and Totalitarian systems: how do they relate to each other?(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 26-7) Authoritarianism is a term to cover all forms of non-democratic regime Totalitarianism is its most extreme manifestation Authoritarianism Totalitarianism OR Preferred approach are distinct

10. Characteristics of Totalitarian regimes(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 29) Radical programme of change Deliberate mobilization of the masses Possession of a distinctive ideology Under control of a single party, which mobilized mass support Organization of paramilitary groups Subjection to systematic control – and terror Indoctrination, seeking destruction of cultural pluralism Establishment of complete control over the economy

11. Authoritarian and Totalitarian regimes (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 29) Authoritarian regimes Totalitarian regimes had a had a conservative approach radical approach which which immobilised the masses mobilised the masses and and emphasized traditional values emphasized new ideologies This was done through This was done through a centralised monopoly of power – often military a one-party control of all power and sometimes enforced by and always enforced by a security apparatus a security apparatus

12. Authoritarian and Totalitarian regimes:which were they? AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES TOTALITARIAN REGIMES Austria under Dollfuss etc. Germany under Hitler 1933-45 Hungary under Horthy etc. Italy under Mussolini 1922-45 Spain under Primo de Rivera and Franco Portugal under Salazar Russia under Lenin 1917-24 Poland under Pilsudski etc Russia under Stalin1924/9-53 Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Yugoslavia Russia after Stalin Albania Greece Bulgaria Romania Turkey under Atatürk

13. Authoritarian and Totalitarian regimes:which were they? Alternative view AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES TOTALITARIAN REGIMES Austria under Dollfuss etc. Germany under Hitler 1933-45 Hungary under Horthy etc. Russia under Lenin 1917-24 Pre-totalitarian authoritarian? Spain under Primo de Rivera and Franco Portugal under Salazar Russia under Stalin1924/9-53 Poland under Pilsudski etc Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania Russia after Stalin Post-totalitarian authoritarian? Yugoslavia Italy under Mussolini 1922-45 incomplete totalitarian? Albania Greece Bulgaria Romania Turkey under Atatürk

14. Complications of term ‘Totalitarian’(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 27-9) 1 Were Communist regimes ‘totalitarian’ per se? Or was this simply a ‘Cold War classification’? (Gleeson, Curtis). Possible alternatives: Lenin’s Russia: ‘pre-totalitarian authoritarian?’ Stalin’s Russia: fully totalitarian? Post Stalinist Russia: ‘post- totalitarian authoritarian? 2 Was there ever any such thing as ‘totalitarian democracy’? (Talmon) Or were all Totalitarian regimes dictatorships? 3 Are there ‘weak’ and ‘strong’ forms of totalitarianism? (Tormey) Or were all Totalitarian regimes dictatorships? Weak systems: regimes have to react to changes rather than being able to control them Strong systems: regimes achieve control by socialization, indoctrination as well as force For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 27-9

15. Authoritarian regimes and totalitarianismTotalitarian regimes and authoritarianism(ED 37) Before 1939: Authoritarian regimes were generally strong enough to prevent democracy and also resist being taken over by totalitarian ideologies. Totalitarian systems arose in former democracies, not in authoritarian states. Spain, Portugal, Austria, Hungary, Poland, the Baltic States, Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece – all prevented a takeover by Communism or Fascism, which took power in Russia (Provisional Government), Liberal Italy, Weimar Germany. BUT After 1939: Totalitarian regimes conquered the authoritarian regimes as part of their process of expansion. They imposed their ideologies by occupation or Influence. Italy occupied Albania. Germany occupied: Austria, W. Poland, Baltic states, Yugoslavia, Greece; influenced Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania Russia occupied: E. Poland and Baltic States

16. Principal European dictators TOTALITARIAN AUTHORITARIAN 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1945 Russia LENIN STALIN Italy MUSSOLINI Germany HITLER Portugal SALAZAR Spain PRIMO DE RIVERA FRANCO Austria DOLFUSS SCHUSCHNIGG Hungary HORTHY Kun Szálasi Poland PIŁSUDSKI Baltic States SMETONA, ULMANIS, PÄTS Yugoslavia ALEXANDER PAVELIC Albania ZOG Romania CAROL ANTONESCU Bulgaria BORIS Greece METAXAS Turkey MUSTAFA KEMAL ATATüRK

17. European dictatorships by 1938 Dictatorships by 1938 D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D D

19. Dictatorships dismantled by other dictatorships 1938-42 Totalitarian dictatorships by 1938 D D D Authoritarian dictatorships dismantled by totalitarian dictatorships 1938-43 D D D D D Authoritarian dictatorships in alliance with totalitarian dictatorships after 1940 D D D D Authoritarian dictatorships remaining outside control of totalitarian dictatorships D D D D D D D D D

20. Part 3What ideologies influenced these ‘dictatorships’ between 1918 and 1945?

21. Communism: Marxist origins and Leninist adaptation(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 30-1) ‘The history of all human society, past and present, has been the history of class struggles.’ (Marx and Engels: Communist Manifesto, 1848). Future: MARX Revolution by proletariat against bourgeoisie & capitalism Dictatorship of the Proletariat Classless Society Revolutions most likely where capitalism was strongest and proletariat largest – e.g. Germany and Britain Importance of party organization. ‘Just as a blacksmith cannot seize a red-hot iron, so the proletariat cannot directly seize power’. LENIN Revolution by proletariat led by party of professional revolutionaries Dictatorship of the Proletariat maintained by party Classless Society Revolutions most likely where capitalism was weakest– e.g. Russia For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 27-9

22. Communism: Early spread in Europe(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 31) Communist revolutions 1917-19 Successful Unsuccessful or temporary

23. Communism: Stalinist adaptation(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 31-2) He abandoned the emphasis by Lenin and Trotsky on Permanent Revolution 1 and substituted Socialism in One Country He upgraded the significance of the bureaucratic state 2 by Strengthening the ‘Dictatorship of the Proletariat’ Reversing the relationship between ‘base’ and ‘superstructure’ Introducing the central Planning system For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 31-2

24. Communism: later spread in Europe Communist regimes established after World War II Under Soviet control Independent of Soviet control

25. Origins of fascism (1) (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 32) Marxist interpretations 1 Communist International 1933: in the crisis of capitalism after World War I, fascism was the dying and most extreme phase of bourgeois-capitalist domination. Fascist leaders were the ‘agents’ of capitalist controllers. 2 Gramsci: Fascism represented the political crisis of capitalist states. In its attempt to revive capitalism, fascism was a radical alternative to the fading appeal of the traditional ruling class. For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 33

26. Origins of fascism (2) (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 33) Non-Marxist interpretations 1 Meinecke, Ritter: Fascism emerged from a moral crisis of European society. According to Fromm, it was ‘an escape from freedom and a refuge in submission’. 2 Blum: Fascism was a rejection of the ideals of the Enlightenment and French Revolution: rationalism, liberalism, democracy, egalitarianism. 3 Nolte: Fascism was a response to the development of Communism. ‘The origin of the Right lies always in the challenge of the Left.’ 4 Hildebrand: Fascism was a reaction to development, a resistance of ‘residual elites’ to ‘industrial tendencies’ of industrial society. 5 Fascism was a reaction to the unsettling impact of World War I, especially on recently united states such as Italy and Germany. For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 33

27. The characteristics of fascism(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 34) 1 It carried a belief in radical change and revolution to achieve social transformation and rebirth. 2 It rejected (1) parliamentary democracy and (2) the revolutionary left and class conflict. 3 It was presided over by an absolute leader, who had the trappings of personality cult. 4 It was normally totalitarian, controlling all forms of communication. 5 It developed an alternative economic strategy to capitalism and socialism 6 It focused on the survival of the fittest 7 It was militarist, hypernationalist and often racist.

28. Should ‘Fascism’ include ‘Nazism’? (Details and comments in European Dictatorships35) NO Sternhell: Fascism originated in France as the conjunction of the syndicalism and ultra-nationalism. It was developed further in Italy. Nazism was distinct and should not be included in the term fascism. The consensus is that Nazism should be included in fascism. Kershaw: Nazism and Italian Fascism were ‘separate species within the same genus’. Nolte: Nazism was ‘radical fascism’. Linz: Nazism was a ‘distinctive branch grafted on the fascist tree’. But: Nazism placed more emphasis than fascism on the racial community and anti-Semitism. YES For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 35

29. Where did fascism derive its support?(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 34) 1 The lumpenproletariat: some of the unemployed and socially displaced 2 Rural populations: peasantry and estate owners 3 Many former army officers, demobilized soldiers and veterans of the First World War 4 The middle classes, affected by economic crises in the 1920s and 1930s 5 Capital and big business – as a means of finding security against the threat of communism 6 Overall, fascism benefited from the instability of the inter-war period. For comments on these, see European Dictatorships (3rd edition) 34

30. Which regimes and movements were ‘Fascist’ before 1939?(ED 30) Fascist totalitarian regimes 7 8 Fascist movements in non-Fascist authoritarian regimes 6 1 Falange (Spain) 2 Falanga (Poland) 3 Heimwehr (Austria) 4 Arrow Cross (Hungary) 5 Iron Guard (Romania) 6 Iron Wolf (Lithuania) 7 Estonian Freedom Fighters 8 Thunder Cross (Latvia) 9 Ustasha (Croatia) 12 2 14 NAZI GERMANY 13 11 3 4 10 5 Fascist movements in democratic regimes FASCIST ITALY 10Action Francaise (France) 11 Rex (Belgium) 12 British Union of Fascists 13 Lapua (Finland) 14 Dutch National Socialists 1

31. Other influences in inter-war Europe(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 36) NATIONALISM CLERICALISM CONSERVATISM MILITARISM

32. Nationalism: an ideology? (Details and comments in European Dictatorships 36) YES NO SUGAR: One of the three ‘dominant ideologies of the twentieth century’ (along with Communism and Fascism/ Nazism). MINOGUE: ‘a set of ideas’ but these ‘add up less to a theory than to a rhetoric’, the communication of ‘political excitement’ from an elite to the masses’. • Possible support for this: • The only set of ideas which • consistently means what it says. • Its capacity to generate huge levels of • commitment and enthusiasm. • Its association with aggression against • other identities. • Possible support for this: • Basic principles of nationalism present • in most ideologies (e.g. Fascism, • Nazism, Stalinist Communism). • Large number of different variations.

33. Types of Nationalism in inter-war Europe (ED 36-7) TYPE EXPLANATION EXAMPLES NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION Search by indigenous groups for their own statehood Czechs, Poles, Serbs, Croats, Lithuanians, Estonians, Latvians INTEGRATIONIST NATIONALISM Attempts by dominant nationality to impose its domination over others to achieve national unity Poland vs Lithuanians, Belo- russians, Ukrainians; Romania vs Hungarians IRREDENTIST NATIONALISM Attempts by nation states to claim or reclaim their co-nationals living in other states Italy vs Yugoslavia; Hungary vs Romania, Czech. Germany vs Poland, Czech. HISTORIC NATIONALISM Revival of national pride in longer- established nations Spain: Francoism; Portugal: Empire; Hungary: Szálasi’s Hungarism ‘INFLAMED’ NATIONALISM Extreme, repressive or eliminationist manifestations – usually racist and anti-Semitic Instances in most dictatorships, especially Germany; anti- Semitism widespread

34. Clericalism(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 36) especially in Spain under Franco, Austria under Dollfuss, Portugal under Salazar, Poland under Pilsudski Normally Catholicism or the Catholic Church, expressing itself as a Conservative influence and cooperating with conservative forms of authoritarianism against Communism Less apparent in Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Baltic states The reverse (measures to restrict the political influence of the religious power) applied in Turkey under Atatürk

35. Conservatism: the two roles(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 37) REDUCTIONIST CONSERVATISM To maintain the status quo and remove destabilising influences such as communism, socialism or fascism Examples: Hungary under Horthy; Poland under Pilsudski; Portugal under Salazar BONDING CONSERVATISM To rally the centre and right against the Left and far left Examples: later Weimar Germany; Spain under Franco

36. Types of Militarism(Details and comments in European Dictatorships 37) Military action as a force against authoritarianism as a force for change and reform Examples: Pre- World War I Spain, Portugal, Turkey Militarism as the ally of conservative authoritarianism Examples: Inter- War regimes: Poland (Pilsudski), Spain Franco), Hungary (Horthy), Greece (Metaxas)

37. Conclusion

38. Classification of dictatorships 1918-45 Authoritarian This classification is open to debate Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland Turkey: Atatürk Austria, Portugal, Hungary (Horthy), Yugoslavia, Romania, Greece, Albania, Bulgaria Russia: post- Stalin Spain: Franco Right Left Hungary (Bela Kun) Italy: Mussolini Russia: Lenin Russia: Stalin Germany: Hitler Totalitarian

39. Classification of dictatorships 1918-45 Authoritarian Suggest alternative classifications on this chart … Right Left Totalitarian

40. Classification of dictatorships 1918-45 … or on this blank chart

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