Introduction

1. Introduction • Grammatical hierarchy(语法层次) • Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks:the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word, and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the

2. phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. • The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or the lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents--- the morphemes. • For example:

3. Sentence Clause • NP VP Prep • Det N Auxv adv. Mv Prep. Det N These under-graduate-s are rapid-ly improv-ing in their writing.

4. (S NP+VP NP Det + N VP Vb+NP Vb Aux+V • Det {the, a, this, that …} • N {table, girl, boy, letter, undergraduate …} • Aux {will, can, might, should, be …} • V {post, repair, buy, teach, sit …} • MV {main verb} ) （next）

5. 1.Morphemes(词素) • The morpheme is the minimum or smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morphemes fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes. • 1)Free morphemes • A free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word. It can sometimes act as a complete utterance in connected speech. For example: desk, chair, kind, cruel.

6. 2)Bound morphemes • Bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but the meaning is not complete in itself unless it is attached to some other form. Therefore, a bound morpheme can not stand by itself, it only exists as an inflectional or derivational affix. Ex. Inflectional affixes:----s/es, ----'s, ed/ing, er/est, ect. • Derivational affixes: prefix & suffix • Unit-war, Marx-ist , un-luck-y

7. 3) Allomorphs (词素变体) • The same morpheme in different contexts may take different phonological (语音上) or orthographical forms. The variants of the same morpheme are called "allomorphs". For example: • (orthographical variants ) • in---- inactive incoherent • im---- immature imperfect • il---- illegal illogical • ir---- irrational irregular • (phonological variants) “s” • cats /s/ dogs /z/ horses /iz/

8. 2.Words • The word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways: • 1)Classification in terms of word-formation • In terms of word-formation, words can be divided into simple words, derivatives and compounds. (Ex: foot desk,;unfair;deadline.) • 2)Classification in terms of grammatical function • In terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two main groups: closed-class words and open-class words.

9. Closed-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are “closed”or limited in number and are only exceptionally extended by the creation of additional members (Function word). For example: Prep. Pronoun， Determiner, conj. Aux V. • Open-class words refer to those sets of words whose items are indefinitely extendable. New items are constantly being created and old items are giving place to new ones(Content word). Ex., noun., adj., adv., main verb.[*Cardinal Numeral, Ordinal Numeral interjection are in between.]

10. 3.Phrases • The phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized. • 1 ) The noun phrase • The noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. The general pattern of a noun phrase is: • (det. + ) (pre-modifier + ) noun ( + post-modifier ) • all the college students • the tall boy sitting in the corner

11. 2)The verb phrase • The verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb of "modifier + main verb". For example, • She looks pale.(她看上去很苍白) • They fully appreciate our problems. • (他们完全意识到了我们的问题) • A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary( auxiliaries )( + modifier ). For example:

12. It is getting dark. (天就要黑了) • She ought to have told him about it. (她本应该早告诉他这件事) • Joan will certainly object and so will Mary. (琼一定会反对,玛丽也一样会反对) • 3) The adjective phrase • The adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is: ( modifier + ) adj. ( + post-modifier / complementation ). For example: • The weather is fine today. • The course is pretty difficult. • You are not careful enough.

13. 4)The adverb phrase • The adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is: ( modifier + ) adverb ( + post-modifier ). For example: • He spoke loudly and clearly. • She spoke very clearly indeed. • 5)The prepositional phrase: • The prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: • (modifier + ) preposition + complementation， eg： • The weather has been fine except in the north.

14. 4.clause(分句) • The clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. A full-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject+predicate”. For example: • Sentence • Clause • Subject predicate • Subject verb object • NP VP NP • The producers are able to supply a small part of our needs.

15. 1)Independent and dependent clauses(独立分句和从属分句) • In terms of grammatical function,a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase. For example: • (I clause) He knows everything about it. • (D clause) I don't think he knows everything about it.

16. (I clause) His new book will soon come out. It is on grammar. • (D clause) His new book that will soon come out is on grammar. • 2) Simple and complex clauses • When a clause consists of only one construction of "subject + predicate", it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. For example: • It is not true. (独立简单分句/简单句) • When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence. For example: • What you said is not true. (独立复杂分句/复杂句) • He said that is was not true. (从属简单分句)

17. He complained that what you said was not true. (从属复杂分句) • 3) Main and subordinate clauses • In a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause. For example: • He complained that what you said was not true. 从句 主句 从句 • 主句

18. 4) Finite and non-finite clauses (限定分句和非限定分句) • A clause can be finite or non-finite. A finite clause is one with a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb phrase (inf., -ing, -ed )as its predicator. For example: • He complained that what you said was not true. (finite clause) • I signed the paper to get the license. (non-finite clause) • Can't you recall telling me that story last week? (non-finite clause)

19. 5.Sentences • The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse. It can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus a sentence can be defined as a grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.

20. 1 ) Full and minor sentences(完整句子和不完整句子) • A full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function. Minor sentences are extensively used in informal discourses. • For example:

21. A.When did he arrive? (full sentence) • B.Last night. (minor sentence) • A. Who called this morning? (full sentence) • B. Mr. Jones. (minor sentence) • 2) Simple（简单句）, compound（并列句）, and complex sentences（复杂句）: • A simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s), this makes a complex sentence. For example:

22. 简单句 • The students have made better grades in the past few weeks. • The boy can stay in the room only for a few minutes. • The students I teach have made better grades in the past few weeks. • 并列句 • Miss Wang came to the party, but Mr. And Mrs. Sherman did not. • Most of us are in the ball, the doctors has been closed, and the latecomers had to wait outside. • 复杂句 • The students would have made better grades if they had studied hard. • I didn't understand what he meant.

23. 一、动词的时态(Tense) • In this lecture we are going to deal with the features of tense. We will start with uses of the present tense, the future tense, the progressive tense, the perfective tense, the contrast between the simple past and the present perfective and the sequence of tenses.

24. 1）The use of simple present The simple present can be formed by the following way:

25. 一般现在时主要由动词原形表示，但第三人称 • 单数后要加词尾-s， • 另外be和 have 有特殊的人称形式。在加词尾 • “-s” 时要注意：

26. 这和名词复数词尾-s的加法是一样的。词尾-s的读音也一样，即：这和名词复数词尾-s的加法是一样的。词尾-s的读音也一样，即：

27. The simple present can be used to denote the following meanings with greater restrictions on verbs: • A) Timeless Present • The most common use of the simple present is found in the expression of eternal truths and proverbs, as well as in scientific, mathematical, geographical and other statements made for all time. For example: A rolling stone _____ no moss. A. gathering B. gathered C. gathers D. together

28. The earth ____ round the sun. A. revolved B. revolves C. is revolving D. is revolved • B) Habitual present Nancy often _____ to her office by underground. A. went B. goes C. go D. gone C) Momentary and instantaneous present (表示对现时状态和现在瞬间动作） For example: What’s the matter with you ? You look pale.

29. D) Simple present referring to the future • The simple present can also be used to denote future time. This use is limited to future event conceived of as “certain”, either because they are determined in advance by calendar or timetable, or because they are part of a plan or an arrangement thought of as unalterable. • Here, we will just mention some sub-clauses in which the simple present is commonly used in the future sense. These sub-clauses include the “that-clause” following “I hope”, “I bet”, etc;

30. the “that –clause” following such constructions as “see to it”, “make sure”, “make certain”; and the conditional / temporal clause introduced by “if , unless , in case ,once ,as long as ,the moment , before , as soon as , after ,as , until , till , by the time ,directly ,immediately” eg: I hope you have a good time. ( = you’ll have a good time) I bet it rains tomorrow. ( = it will rain tomorrow.) Father will see (to it )that the window is closed.

31. We’ll ring you up as soon as we get back. • In addition, some verbs of movement from one place to another such as “go,come, leave, start, arrive, begin, return, sail, ” etc. can be used to express the future sense, but usually used in simple tense to refer to a future happening anticipated, arranged or planed, at the present,eg: He leaves for Beijing tomorrow. The new students _____the day after tomorrow. A. arrive B. are arriving C. have arrived D. arrived （end）

32. 2) The use of future tense: • In English, future time is expressed by means of modal auxiliaries, by semi-auxiliaries, or by the simple present and present progressive forms. • A) The simple future tense: • 一般将来时由助动词shall或will加注动词原形构成，shall用于第一人称，will用于第二、三人称。 • 这个时态的肯定、否定和疑问结构可表示如下：

33. The simple future is used to denote the future time. For example: You will feel better after taking this medicine. I’m sure I shan’t lose my way in the woods. • Besides this, some other constructions can also used to denote future time. For example: “be going to + infinitive”. This construction is usually used to express two meanings: intention, and prediction. In its first use, the “ be going to ” form implies an intention of doing something in the near future:

34. We’re going to put up a building here. How are you going to spend your holidays? In its second use, “ be going to ” can express the speaker’s feeling of certainty. The time is usually not mentioned, but the action is expected to happen in the near or immediate future: I think it is going to snow. There’s going to be a lot of trouble about this. • “Present progressive” The present progressive can refer to a future happening anticipated at the present. Its basic meaning is an action that will happen in the near

35. future according to a present arrangement, plan, or program. • As a future form, the present progressive is widely used with verbs such as “go, come, leave, start, arrive” etc. For example： They’re playing some folk music next. I’m taking the children to the zoo (on Sunday). “be to + infinitive” • As a form expressing futurity, the construction “to be + inf.” can denote a future happening based on a present plan or arrangement, eg:

36. When is the factory to go into production? (这工厂什么时候投产?) The line is to be opened to traffic next week. (这条铁路将在下周通车.) This construction is very much used to convey orders, instructions, or prohibitions; it can also connote possibility or destiny, eg: Tell her she’s not to be late.(order) A： You are to stand here. B：Do you understand?(instruction) The dictionary is not to be had here.(possibility) They are to meet next year.(destiny) （A）

37. B> The past future • The future time discussed in the preceding section is viewed from the present. If the speaker refers to a future event from a viewpoint in the past, that is past future. Most of the future construction just discussed can be used in the past tense to refer to past future events. • “would + infinitive” He said he would come back the next day. “was/were going to + infinitive” This construction is commonly used with past future reference clearly indicated in the context, eg:

38. He said that he was going to live in the country when he retired. It usually occurs in dependent clauses, and if it occurs in main clauses often denotes an unfulfilled intention, eg: Last Sunday we were going to go for a picnic but it rained. “was/were to + infinitive” This construction is commonly used in formal style to denote a future action based on a past plan or arrangement. If the plan or arrangement is cancelled or unfulfilled, we will have to use “was / were to + perfective infinitive”.Compare:

39. He said that we were to leave at six. We were to have left at six but it rained. • This construction can also be used in the sense of “was destined to”, ie. denoting a past destiny: They said goodbye, little knowing they were never to meet again. “past progressive and simple past”(表示将来概念时的区别) • The past progressive can express an arrangement predetermined in the past, eg: • He hurried into the carriage. The train was leaving in two minutes. • For past future reference, the simple past is commonly found in adverbial clauses of condition

40. and in those of time, eg: He said he would tell her all about it if he met her. She told me that she would come to see me when she visited china again. • “was/were about to + infinitive” • This semi-auxiliary construction expresses the immediate future in the past. In some context, it is often used in the sense of an unfulfilled intention. Compare: I felt that something terrible was about to happen.(usage1) We were about to start when it began to rain.(usage2) The prisoner was about to escape, but the policemen appeared before him. (usage2)（end）

41. 3）进行时的几种特殊用法 • A）Uses of the present progressive • Present progressive （am/is/are+-ing participle）has the following uses： • a)To denote an action in progress at the moment of speaking • To denote what is going on at the present moment ,we commonly use the present progressive,generally associated with durative dynamic verbs, eg: • A: what are you doing? • B: I’m writing a letter.

42. The difference between the simple present and the present progressive referring to present time is that the former carries a permanent meaning. And the latter a temporary meaning. Compare: • He lives in Changchun.(permanent residence) • He is living in Changchun.(temporary residence) • b) To denote an action in progress at a period of time including the present • The present progressive can also express an action that is going on over a period of time including the present but not necessarily at the moment of speaking , that is, a temporary habit as distinguished

43. from the permanent habit denoted by the simple present. Compare: • He works in a chemical factory. (经常性工作) • He is working in a chemical factory these days. (临时性工作) • Note that the present progressive when accompanied by an adverbial of frequency such as “always, continually, constantly, or forever” often imparts an emotional colouring, often of annoyance or disapproval. By contrast, the simple present lacks the subjective, emotional tone of the present progressive and states a fact objectively. Compare:

44. She complains about the house.(说明事实) • She is constantly complaining about the house. (表示说话人对“she”的行为的厌烦) • How are you feeling today? (比How do you feel today?显得更亲切) • Xiao hua is doing fine work at school. (比Xiao hua does fine work at school 更富有赞美的意思) • He is always thinking of his work. (表示赞许) • He is constantly leaving his things about. (表示不满) • New varieties are appearing all the time. (表示高兴) • We’are now hauling in ten times more fish than before. (表示满意) • He is always boasting. (表示厌烦)

45. c）To denote a future happening according to a definite plan or arrangement • We have mentioned this use in the previous lecture: • Mr.Cameron is leaving China in a few weeks. • I’m going to Qingdao for the summer holiday. • d)To denote other meanings • “be”间或可用于进行时态,表示一时的表现: • You’re not being modest.(你这样说不太谦虚。) • He’s being silly.(他这样做是发傻。) • She’s being friendly.(她这样是为了表示友好。) • Lili is being a good girl today.(丽丽今天很乖。)

46. 下列动词，因含有“状态的继续”的意味，通常不用于现在进行时： （A）

47. B)The use of the past progressive • The use of the past progressive(was/were+-ing participle) has much in common with that of the present progressive, only the time reference being pushed back to the past, often overtly expressed by a time –when adverbial. The following are the uses of the past progressive. • a)To denote an action in progress at a definite point or period of past time • This is the most common use of the past progressive. In this use, the past time reference is usually indicated by a temporal adverbial or implied by the context. For example,

48. They were building a dam last winter. • The students were watching TV at seven p.m. • b)To denote a past habitual action • The habitual action denoted by the past progressive is most clearly characterized by its temporariness, in contrast with the past habit denoted by the simple past, eg: • George was getting up at five every day that week. • As in the case of the present progressive, the past progressive can also collocate with such adverbials of frequency as “ always, constantly, continually, forever, ect.” To express emotional feelings,

49. especially feelings of annoyance or disapproval on the part of the speaker, eg: • All the time he was thinking of his work.(他总是在想他的工作。) • She was always working like that.(她总是那样地工作。) • He was forever complaining about something.（他老是怨这怨那。） • They were constantly making trouble.(他们不断捣乱。) • c）To denote futurity in the past • In specific contexts，the past progressive can be used to denote a future action in the past according to a definite plan or arrangement. This use is also

50. found in some adverbial clauses of time or condition, eg: • They were leaving a few days later. • He told me to wake him up if he was sleeping. ( 表示过去将来时间正在进行的动作。) • d)To make polite requests • The past progressive has a similar function to that of the simple past and of the present progressive. Of the three forms, the past progressive is the most tentative in making polite requests. Compare: • I hope you can send me some books. • I hoped you could send me some books.