Geographic Information Systems Applications in Natural Resource Management

1. Geographic Information SystemsApplications in Natural Resource Management Chapter 15 Trends in GIS Technology Michael G. Wing & Pete Bettinger

2. Chapter 15 Objectives • Common trends related to GIS technology, and how these might be applied in natural resource management, • Opportunities for strengthening GIS technology and applications within natural resource management organizations, and • Current and potential technological developments that might promote or hinder the advancement of GIS as an effective problem-solving tool.

3. GIS technology is constantly evolving • Software and hardware advances • New types of data collection techniques and devices • New types of applications of technology • GIS is gradually becoming a technology that is being used in most segments of society, not just natural resources • Chapter 15 asks: where to from here?

4. Integrated raster/vector software • GIS software packages were previously defined as being a “raster” or “vector” software package • Packages were typically designed for one data structure and could perhaps dabble in another • ArcInfo workstation and ArcView 3: vector • This trend has recently changed as most packages now have capabilities in both raster and vector • Previously, the strong differences between raster and vector data structures prevented integration • In addition, software manufacturers created their own proprietary data formats that

5. As software and hardware advances… • Perhaps a fully integrated system, one that offers a full suite of tools for both raster and vector data will emerge • Vector databases used for image classification • Raster databases used for buffering, overlay, and proximity operations • This system would allow users to seamlessly use raster or vector data for GIS operations

6. Linkage of GIS Databases to other digital data • Connecting mapped data to other information sources, such as digital photography, video, or text-based information sources • Allows us to learn more about a mapped feature

7. Linking GIS data to other information Figure 15.1. A GIS database of urban trees, and an associated hyperlinked picture of a tree (courtesy of Andrew Saunders).

8. High-resolution databases • Precision forestry and precision agriculture have become recognized disciplines • Applications seek to use digital technologies for improving or making more efficient natural resource management activities • The term “precision agriculture” has been in use for over ten years while precision forestry has recently gained popular usage • The first formal recognition was at the 2001 UW Precision Forestry Symposium

9. Precision agriculture applications • Using GPS as a navigational aid for farm equipment • Capturing remotely sensed imagery to describe the status of soil properties (to determine the need for fertilizer or pesticides) • Using digital aerial photographs to record crop plantings and outcomes

10. Precision forestry applications • Using electronic distance measuring tools to capture precise spatial positions of forest landscape features • Capturing precise and timely satellite imagery to assist in monitoring threats to forest health (fire, disease, floods) • Developing precise, fine-scale DEMs to identify steep forested areas that may be susceptible to landslide activity

11. Challenges for precision forestry • In contrast to precision agriculture applications, forestry landscapes have dense canopy cover and typically mountainous terrain • This limits the use of technologies such as GPS or airborne remote sensing technologies • With GPS, scheduling data collection during “leaf-off” periods or times of strong satellite geometry can improve reception

12. Raster data collection appears promising • Data collection and processing techniques becoming more efficient and affordable • IKONOS • 1-4m resolution • Color aerial photography at 1m resolution can be captured and made available to clients within days

13. IKONOS satellite image at 4 m resolution of Copper Mountain located in theColorado Rocky Mountains(Image courtesy of GeoEye)

14. Managing raster data • Raster databases have sometimes been prohibitive to organizations because of their size • Hard drives are becoming larger and faster but raster data can still quickly consume space • With proper management, raster data have great potential to assist organizations that manage large land areas • Keeping land cover information current • Facilitating temporal analysis of land cover change • The challenge will be in deciding how often to acquire new data and how to integrate new data into existing databases (update questions) • This is a strong contrast from the recent past when organizations often struggled to create and/or locate data

15. Distributing GIS capabilities to field offices • The traditional model of GIS use in organizations was a centralized office that would attempt to provide GIS services and support for all parts of the organization • Problems with this model: • Accessibility • Timeliness • Communication • Today’s trend: the distributed model

16. Distributed GIS capabilities • Makes GIS available to many parts of an organization including field offices • Many factors have contributed to this model: • More people graduating from colleges and universities with GIS training • Less expensive hardware • More user-friendly software • Benefits include enhanced field office productivity (timeliness, removing communication barriers, and giving employees greater involvement in organizational activities) and a reduction in the centralized GIS office • This model will likely continue to grow in popularity

17. Internet data availability • The Internet has been a primary contributor to GIS popularity • Many public organizations make data available for download • Not long ago, data needed to be physically transported on a storage device (carried or mailed) • Some organizations still charge for data transfer costs • Some larger databases (raster DOQs) still can’t be efficiently made available for large land areas • Data compression techniques will likely improve to accommodate large raster databases

18. Portable devices for data display and capture • Handheld and personal data assistants (PDAs) have become increasingly common for collecting forest inventory and landscape data • GPS receivers can be coupled with hand-held devices to show locations and store measurements • DOQs or DRGs can be displayed in the background to locate features or verify measurements • These technologies are reducing the use of field data books and the need to manually record measurements • Has increased the rate at which data can be integrated into a digital database • Reduces the opportunity for human error • Handheld data collectors are still expensive ($1,000 to 5,000) while PDAs are generally inexpensive ($200-300) • Still difficult to place complete trust in these instruments for data collection

19. Standards for the exchange of GIS databases • The Federal Geographic Data Committee (FGDC) has specified standards for data cataloging • These standards guide the construction of metadata: data about data • All federal agencies are required to comply, most state agencies that distribute spatial data have also adopted data standards • Private organizations are not bound to data cataloging standards • Acquisition and modification of GIS data may go undocumented • ArcInfo coverages and ArcView shapefiles are the most prevalent GIS formats made available by organizations • DXF files are also popular for schematics and engineering related databases • Most GIS software allows users to import, or at least view, data in several different formats

20. Legal issues related to GIS • Privacy, liability, accessibility, and licensing (discussed in depth in Chapter 16) are all hot topics within GIS at present • Privacy • Spatial data are being collected about all of us at an ever-increasing rate • Address, family, income, home value, purchasing decisions • Organizations are purchasing and using this data to help direct advertising • Mailings, phone calls, e-mails • GIS has become a tool, like it or not, to foster business • As private organizations continue to forge new ground in the collection, sale, and exchange of spatial data that describe the economic and social behavior of individuals, society will be challenged to maintain privacy

21. Freedom of Information Act • FOIA was authorized in 1966 to grant taxpayers access to information related to the functioning of the government • Certain types of information- security, law enforcement investigations, and other information judged to be sensitive- are exempt • However, eligible information must be made available to taxpayers at a reasonable cost • Recent events have added restrictions to the types of data made available

22. Legal liability • When a service or product is unsatisfactory to a customer, legal liability arises • Two types of liability related to GIS • Contractual and Tort • Contractual liability may occur when a contractual agreement between two parties has been breached • Private organization: software not operating as advertised or a spatial database that does not meet a data accuracy standard • Tort liability may occur when a person or organization becomes injured (physically, monetarily, or otherwise) as a result of another party’s actions or products • An accident at sea that results from an inaccurate map or GIS database that was designed for navigation

23. Competency • Private organizations that provide GIS products and services are responsible for adhering to, and demonstrating, a level of competency • When others are injured as a result of incompetence, the organization may be liable • This occur due to inaccurate or insufficient data • Typically, however, courts have established competency by comparing services or products to those that would be expected of an organization acting “reasonable” • Government organizations have typically been immune from litigation related to providing inaccurate data • Sovereign immunity • Exceptions are made for discretional services or products

24. Limiting liability risk • Include information or disclaimers with a product that describe its intended use, data accuracy, data reliability, and a warning that there may be errors in the data (Chapter 4) • Have a clearly defined contract for products and/or services and have all parties sign • Make sure that all adhere to it • If changes are needed, and go beyond the scope of the contract, the client should be informed immediately and a new contract agreed to before any additional work (in addition to the original contract) is performed

25. GIS Interoperability • Interoperability means that software packages get along with one another • Accomplished through the option of standard terminology, data formats, and software interfaces • Rapid GIS growth during the 1990s led to numerous incompatible GIS products

26. Open Geospatial Consortium • Over 340 member organizations, began in 1994 • Promotes accessibility to geoprocessing tools and location-based services • Accomplishments • Standardized terms: points, lines, and polygons • Created GML (Geography Markup Language), an open source language for describing spatial data • Standards for how geographic data can be requested and accessed from Internet servers

27. GIS Education • GIS capabilities are now essential for natural resource organizations • No direct accreditation process or organization exists to guide geospatial technology instruction • ABET provides accreditation for engineering and surveying curriculums • A need exists to identify the concepts and knowledge necessary for geospatial technology programs in higher-education • The Geographic Information Science and Technology Body of Knowledge (DiBiase et al. 2006) has attempted to define critical concepts and skills related to GIScience