5. Comparative European Literature

5. Comparative European Literature

Diocletian As emperor of Rome from 284 to 305, Diocletian expanded the boundaries of the empire. In order to improve imperial control over Roman territories, he appointed a co-emperor to rule the eastern half of the empire.

Constantine the Great was the first emperor of Rome to convert to Christianity. During his reign, Christians, previously persecuted, gained freedom of worship. He gave huge estates and other gifts to the Christian church. He established a capital in the eastern provinces, naming it Constantinople (now İstanbul, Turkey).

Medieval Reliquary During the Middle Ages, the bones and other remains of saints were frequently venerated as relics. Artists would often create elaborate boxes, called reliquaries, to contain these sacred remains.

The four leading Fathers of the Western church—Saints Jerome, Gregory the Great, Ambrose, and Augustine—are depicted, left to right, in Madonna and Child Enthroned,

The Koran The revelations of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, were recorded in verse form in the 7th century in a text that came to be known as the Koran. The copy of the Koran shown here dates from the late 8th or early 9th century.

Mecca, Saudi Arabia The al-Haram Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, holds the holiest shrine of Islam, the Kaaba. As the birthplace of Islam’s founder, the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca is considered a holy city. It is a pilgrimage point for Muslims worldwide, who are expected to visit the city at least once if they are able to do so.

Medina, Saudi Arabia Medina, in western Saudi Arabia, is a sacred city that only Muslims are permitted to enter. The Prophet Muhammad took refuge in Medina after fleeing Mecca in 622 ad, and the city’s numerous mosques remain a destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage.

Spread of Islam In the 7th and 8th centuries the religion of Islam spread through conversion and military conquest throughout the Middle East and North Africa. By 733, just 100 years after the death of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, an ordered Islamic state stretched from India in the east to Spain in the west.

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire evolved from the Roman Empire’s eastern territories after the Roman Empire’s western regions fell in the 5th century. Initial harmony between the church and state fortified the early empire (4th-6th centuries). The Crusades taxed the territories during the 11th century, precipitating a decline. Constantinople, the capital, fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the last remnants of the Byzantine Empire a few years later.

Merovingian Castle Altes Schloss (Old Castle), in Meersburg, is the oldest inhabited castle in Germany. Meersburg was founded in 628 by the Merovingian king Dagobert, who is believed to have laid the cornerstone for the castle.

3.What were historical backgrounds of the birth of theByzantine, Islam and the west? (one-God belief) a. The Roman Empire grew too large to control by one emperor and to resist the Persians and Germans; b. The emperor assimilated Germans. c. Its western half came to fragment into smaller and weaker kingdoms.4.What were their particular features?Trade center; centralized power;thriving trade; centralized power;

poor: cities depopulated and land unproductive;fragmented power;5.What were their common features? One God, rural means, local power.6. Why do we say that Merovingian kings & queens laid the foundations for the formation of later Europe? A. These Germanic Franks controlled the West and divided the kingdoms and fought among themselves. B. They adopted Roman institutions, allied with Christian churches.

7. What are the features of the Early Middle Ages? Carolingian751-1100a. Charlemagne’ empire: 768-814later known as Holy Roman Empireb. Carolingian Renaissance: to create an orderly/unified Christian empire,Revive wisdom of Roman writers;with Christian literature & learning;create new works of art/literature; c. Economy: farming and trade; d. Breakup: France, Germany, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Luxemburg, Sw;

Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, was among the greatest of military leaders in the Middle Ages. He conquered much of western and central Europe. As king, Charlemagne revived the political and cultural life that had disappeared with the fall of the Western Roman Empire four centuries before.

Charlemagne's Empire in 800 Under the rule of Pepin the Short and his son Charlemagne, the Carolingians of the 8th and 9th centuries conquered vast territories and combined large portions of western Europe into a single unit. In 800 Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne emperor of the Empire of the West, a region later known as the Holy Roman Empire. coronation.

Charlemagne and the Pope The Frankish king Charlemagne was a devout Catholic who maintained a close relationship with the papacy throughout his life. In 772, when Pope Adrian I was threatened by invaders, the king rushed to Rome to provide assistance. Shown here, the pope asks Charlemagne for help at a meeting near Rome.

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle Considered the primary source for English history between the 10th and 12th centuries, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle also contains earlier examples of prose. This page depicts Charlemagne, king of the Franks in the late 8th century, killing the heathen Saxons.

The Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne Charlemagne’s palace at Aachen, Germany, built about 792-805, is one of the finest examples of Carolingian architecture. The most dramatic part of the structure is the 16-sided Palatine chapel, shown here.

Monk in a Scriptorium Many of the books used for education in medieval Europe were reproduced by monks. They diligently copied entire texts in a monastery room called a scriptorium, which was designed for this purpose.

Portrait of Saint Matthew This is a page from the illuminated manuscript known as the Ebbo Gospels (about 816-835). It depicts Saint Matthew writing his gospel account, and is a good example of the use of portraits of authors in illuminated manuscripts that was popular in the early Middle Ages.

Gathering Honey The women shown here is harvesting honey from beehives in the 15th century. During the Middle Ages, families that had the resources to do so often kept bees. Bees and beehives were an important source of honey, which was used as a sweetener and to ferment to make mead, an alcoholic beverage. The beeswax was used to make candles.

Routes of the Vikings The Vikings were both a warrior and farming society from the region now known as Scandinavia. They were also seafaring explorers who sailed beyond their homelands not only to raid, but also to build settlements in other parts of the world. The Danish Vikings went south toward Germany, France, England, Spain, and into regions on the northwestern Mediterranean coast. Swedish Vikings went to eastern Europe, while the Norwegians sailed to Greenland and North America.

Viking Raiding Party Viking ships, because of their shallow draft, were able to successfully navigate rivers and streams that many other vessels could not. This allowed the Vikings to raid settlements far upriver from the sea, settlements that frequently were not prepared for an attack from the water.

Serfdom in the Middle Ages During the Middle Ages in Europe, peasants became legally bound to live and work in one place in servitude to wealthy landowners. In return for working the land of the owner, known as the lord, these peasants, called serfs, received a crude house, a small adjoining plot of ground, a share of the surrounding fields, some farm animals, and protection from outlaws and other lords. The serf gave part of his own crop to the lord as payment of rent and was subject to many other payment obligations and taxes. Serfdom differed from slavery because serfs had the right to own property, could not be sold, and could theoretically purchase their freedom from their lords.

Weapons of Medieval Warfare During the Middle Ages, warriors in Europe developed into an elite class of knights. Living under the threat of invasions from foreigners, the people of Europe also developed a different kind of weaponry. Mounted warriors, known as cavalry, could move quickly and strike hard with axes, pikes, lances, and two-edged swords longer than those used by men on foot.

8. What are the features of Central Middle Ages? growth1100-1300a. agricultural change/urban growth; b. schools/universities: law, medicine, philosophy, theology as the focus; c. papacy: by Gregorian VII -1085 d. new-style monarchies:England-systemic feudal rule 1066; France-growing by King Philip II; Germany- Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II in conflict with papacy; Spain-made by conquering Muslim;

papacy-with church courts, Fourth Lateran Council, involved in politics; e. art, architecture and sculpture: Romanesque & Gothic f. monastery: self-sufficientunit--in which monks lived and worked as models of virtue & piety, respected by kings/nobles--wealthy/powerful; g. aggression and suppression: the Fourth Crusade 1109 as a siege of a Christian city; conversion of Slavs; anti-Semitism; anti-heretics;

Agriculture During the Central Middle Ages Agricultural innovations during the Central Middle Ages allowed peasants to greatly increase their amount of food production. Heavier plows and more resilient agricultural tools made arable land more productive. Windmills and watermills became widely used to process grains. In addition, peasants began using a rotating crop system in which two fields were planted and one field was left fallow.

Medieval Town During the Middle Ages, towns and cities frequently grew out of trading sites. As traders and craftsmen came to sell their wares to local lords and bishops, permanent trading settlements were sometimes established near castles or monasteries. Trade was very important to the economies of medieval towns, which often featured crowded and lively markets and fairs.

Lübeck, Germany The city of Lübeck was an important center of trade during the Middle Ages. Lübeck contains some of Europe’s finest examples of medieval Gothic architecture.

Medieval Walled Town During the Middle Ages, many towns and cities were ringed by walls or other fortifications for defense. This picture shows the walled city of Florence, Italy.

Growth of Italian Cities During the Middle Ages, some Italian cities gained the right to govern themselves and the areas around them. By the late Middle Ages, northern Italy was divided into a collection of city-states, regions dominated by their chief city. The shaded areas surrounding each city on this map represent the city’s area of influence.

Development of Universities Universities began to develop in western Europe in the 13th century, most notably at Paris, France, and Bologna, Italy. Instruction in medieval universities often took the form of lectures, with teachers, who were called masters, reading aloud from a text while students followed along.

Cambridge University Cambridge University in Cambridge, England, was founded in the 13th century. It is one of the oldest educational institutions in Europe and one of the most prestigious universities in the world.

Court of Justinian I In the 6th century, Byzantine emperor Justinian I organized the first written compilation, or code, of Roman law. The compilation, which became known as the Justinian Code, influenced the development of the civil law system in many countries.

Abelard and Héloïse The 12th-century scholar Peter Abelard was one of the most famous theologians and philosophers of his time. In 1117 he began tutoring Héloïse, the niece of a French cleric. Abelard and Héloïse soon became secret lovers, but were forced to separate after being discovered by Héloïse’s uncle. The two lovers retired to monasteries, and although they kept in touch by writing, they did not see each other again.

Saint Thomas Aquinas Education in the 13th century was shaped profoundly by the work of Italian philosopher and theologian Saint Thomas Aquinas. The writings of Aquinas attempted to reconcile the philosophy of Aristotle with the ideas of Christian theology. Aquinas employed both reason and faith in the study of metaphysics, moral philosophy, and religion.

Illumination from Scivias German composer and mystic Hildegard of Bingen wrote devotional songs and poetry inspired by intense visions she experienced. She became the head of an order of nuns in 1136 and went on to found two other orders. Shown here is an illumination from her book of visions called Scivias. It was printed in 1179, the year of her death.

Pope Gregory I Gregory I, known as Gregory the Great, became pope in 590 and effected great changes in the Roman Catholic church. He increased the power of the papacy, and used the papal office to govern a large area around Rome during a time of little civil administration. Gregory’s writings about saints, including Saint Benedict, helped the growth of Benedictine monasteries in the Middle Ages.

Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter Catholic doctrine states that Jesus appointed Saint Peter to be the first pope, which established a link between Jesus and the papacy. This link is known as apostolic succession, whereby the pope is seen as the heir to the apostles. The papacy enjoyed great power due to this doctrine. The advantages taken by certain popes of this and other doctrines eventually led to criticism by many Christian reformers.

Relation of Church and State After the Gregorian Reform of the late 11th century, the power of kings and emperors over the church began to decline. This painting shows how the church viewed the relationship between church and state. The pope is shown in the center of the picture, with other representatives of the church to his left. To the right of the pope, and seated slightly lower, is the Holy Roman emperor, and to his right, other representatives of lay government.

Henry IV at Canossa Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, along with his wife and young son, spent three days barefoot in the snow at Canossa, in northern Italy. Pope Gregory VII had excommunicated Henry following a clash over secular control of the empire, and Henry was seeking readmission to the Church, which the pope granted.

Emperor Henry V, emperor of what would come to be known as the Holy Roman Empire, engaged in a long series of disputes with the Roman Catholic church in the early 12th century over his authority to appoint church officials, known as lay investiture. During the controversy, Henry took Pope Paschal II prisoner when the pope refused to crown him. The Concordat of Worms in 1122 resolved the disputes.

The First Crusade In response to the announcement by Pope Urban II of a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1095, Christian forces from western Europe converged on Constantinople, where they united with Byzantine forces to attack Seljuk armies in Anatolia and Muslim armies in Syria and Palestine. By 1099 the Crusaders had achieved their goal—the capture of the city of Jerusalem. However, Christian territories acquired during the First Crusade were gradually lost over the next 200 years. Jerusalem was recaptured by Muslim forces in 1187, and the last Christian stonghold in the Holy Land fell in 1291.

The Crusader States In the aftermath of the First Crusade (1096-1099), Europeans carved out four states in Palestine, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Many castles and fortresses were built to protect the states from Muslim forces. However, the Muslims gradually recaptured the territory, and European presence in Palestine ended with the fall of the city of Acre in 1291.

Bayeux Tapestry Depicting the Norman conquest of England by William I and the events leading up to it, the 11th-century Bayeux Tapestry is one of the most famous tapestries in the world.

William I, known as William the Conqueror, was king of England from 1066 to 1087. As king, William reorganized the system of lords and vassals in England, making all landholders swear loyalty to him rather than to their separate lords. William also ordered an exhaustive survey of the wealth in his realm. The written results, known as the Domesday Book, helped determine the revenues owed him by his subjects.

Domesday Book Compiled in 1086 under the direction of William I of England, Domesday Book was a meticulous survey of estates in England.

Seal of King John King John of England affixed this seal to Magna Carta. Magna Carta was a major step in the development of constitutional government in England. It guaranteed that life, liberty, and property were not to be taken from members of the nobility without judgment of that person’s peers and only by process of the law of the land.

5. Comparative European Literature