Why learn about the scientific research process?

3. Why learn about the scientific research process? • To learn the research process • To become a critical consumer of information • To develop critical and analytic thinking • Learn to critically read a research article

4. Scientific Methods • Induction – specific to general reasoning • Generalizing from specific experiments to general hypotheses or (Karl Popper: Turkey Example) • Observation 1, Observation 2, Observation 3 CONCLUSION • Stereotypes, Learning PROTOTYPES… Learning SOUNDS • Statistics: Generalize samples to Population... • Qualitative: Ground UP THEORY! • Deduction – general to specific reasoning • involved in forming hypotheses from theory Karl Popper: Logic of Scientific Discovery THEORY-- Generates Hypotheses

5. Scientific Methods … • Hypothesis testing – testing a predicted relationship from theory or experience • associated with logical positivists • belief that statements are meaningful only when verifiable by observation (or EXPERIMENTATION) • What are the effects of violent movies on aggressive vs. nonaggressive individuals? • Hypothesis 1: No difference on aggressive individuals • Hypothesis 2: Nonaggressive More likely to be affected? DO EXPERIMENT!! to find out.

6. Scientific Methods … • Criticism of Hypothesis Testing: • Commit logical fallacy confusing the directionality of “if-then statements”(affirming the consequent) • Propositional Statement: • (1) If P, then Q. (If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox then he is rich • (2) Q. (Bill Gates is rich) • (3) Therefore, P. (Bill Gates owns Fort Knox). • Conclusion can be false even when statements 1 and 2 are true. Since P was never asserted as the only sufficient condition for Q, other factors could account for Q (while P was false;**Owning Fort Knox is not the only way to get rich. There are other ways) • Popper and his falsification position—Key criteria in science • Duhem-Quine principle: A hypothesis cannot be tested in isolation (you have to make certain assumptions)!

7. Scientific Methods (cont'd) • Naturalism – science should be studied and evaluated empirically (Methodological approach) • Evaluate scientific theories based on empirical adequacy (How well our data fits the theory) • Do empirical data support the theory? • Does the theory make accurate predictions? • Does the theory provide a CAUSE-EFFECT Explanation? • Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996) • paradigm – framework (thought) • science governed by types of activities • normal science-shared paradigm (one paradigm) • revolutionary science – replace one paradigm with another (PARADIGM SHIFT: Cognitive Revolution)

8. Scientific Methods (cont'd) • Paul Feyerabend (1924-1994): • Feyerabend’s Anarchists Theory of Science • argued there is no such thing as a method of science, but science has many methods • advocated that science does not give knowledge superior to other forms of knowledge • his position – the unchanging principle of scientific method is that “anything goes” • Scientific knowledge is not better than other forms of knowledge

9. Basic Assumptions Underlying Scientific Research • Uniformity/Regularity in nature (Chaotic?) • A search for uniformities, for lawful relations among the events in nature (Skinner, 1953, p.13). A RELIABLE THEORY/LAWS • Determinism- Mental/behavior processes caused by natural factors. Scientist’s job is to link factors that are linked together! • Manipulate IV Change in DV (CAUSE & EFFECT) • Probabilistic causes- Regularities that usually produce outcomes • Do experiments to establish the “determinants” of events • Science to uncover probabilistic causes (factors) that determine certain behavior • Reality in nature (Variables EXIST! INTELLIGENCE)– Assumption: things we see, hear, feel smell, taste are real– assume that certain “objects” can be studied objectively, • Discoverability– Possible to discover regularities that exist in nature. • Cure cancer or Aids

10. Characteristics of Scientific Research • Control—eliminating the influence of extraneous variables • Allows of unambiguous claims about cause & effect • Placebo effect: Improvement due to expectations? • Operationalism—representing constructs by a specific set of steps, features or operations used to measure that construct. • Operational definition: Defining variables • is essential for communication; RELIABLE, REPLICATE • many different ways of representing constructs • multiple operationalism involves use of multiple measures of a construct • Can we operationalize BEAUTY? • A GOOD CAR SALESMAN

11. Characteristics of Scientific Research (cont'd) • Replication— reproduction of results in a new study • reasons for failure to replicate • effect doesn’t exist • replication study is not an exact replication • effect may depend on context • meta-analysis – a quantitative technique for describing the relationship between variables across multiple studies

12. Role of Theory in Science • To summarize and integrate existing data • HELPS TO EXPLAIN HOW & WHY A Phenomenon operates as it does • Guides Research: Popper... LOOK, LOOK, LOOK • Continuous interaction between theory and empirical observation (SEE FIGURE 1.2) • What are some good theories?

13. Figure 1.2Illustration of the relationship between theory and research.