Iranian Revolution (1977-79)

1. Iranian Revolution(1977-79)

2. Background • President Carter wants to emphasise human rights as the new key issue in US foreign policy • Shah’s regime has a very poor human rights record • March 1977: the Shah is forced into beginning a process of liberalisation in Iran • Liberalisation process provides the opportunity for the opposition to begin more effective resistance • Opposition also opposed to the apparent Westernisation of Iran and the subsequent undermining of Iranian or indigenous culture.

3. Who were the opposition? • The National Front • The Freedom Movement • Intellectuals – writers, lawyers etc • Guerilla movements • Mojahedin • Fada’iyun • Ulama • Bazaaris

4. Liberalisation Policy • March 1977: Shah promised to ‘create a free political atmosphere’, also promised free elections and to loosen press censorship. • May 1977: Various new laws passed relating to prisoners and suspected criminals. For example, political prisoners were not to be tortured, security forces must show tolerance.

5. Consequences of the Liberalisation Policy • ‘On the eve of the liberalisation the organised opposition to the Shah was fragmented, disunited, and highly pessimistic about prospects for overthrowing the regime, but it had the organisational and financial potential to challenge the government should an opportune moment present itself. The liberalisation policy provided this opportunity, as it allowed the organised opposition to channel the people’s deep seated grievances and frustrations into collective political action.’ • ‘The most profound impact of the human rights policy and the subsequent liberalisation was their psychological impact on the performance of the opposition to the Shah.’ • ‘it gave the opposition a new lease on life, strengthened the spirit of defiance among the population, and slowly shattered the invincibility of the Shah, a myth SAVAK had so painstakingly created in Iran.’

6. The first phase of resistance • March 1977: Ali AsgharHajSeyyedJavadi, a prominent writer, wrote an open letter to the Shah complaining about conditions in Iran - ‘The first stage of a movement which eventually transformed into a revolution’ • June 1977: Leaders of the National Front sent an open letter to the Shah condemning corruption, repression and the Shah’s autocracy. The letter demanded: • Free elections • Respect for the Constitution • Improvement in deteriorating economic conditions • An end to corruption • All of these demands were to be realised without the use of violence and within the confines of the law.

7. The First Phase continued.... • Protest movement was essentially reformist and nonviolent. • The students and secular intellectuals. • No evidence that the Ulamaas a group was involved in anti state activities during this early period. • Poorly organised resistance movement. (Milani) • ‘It took the involvement of the religious forces to turn the movement into a truly popular, outdoor revolution.’ (Srebeny-Mohammadi, Mohammadi)

8. Islamic Revolution • January 1st 1978: article published in two of Tehran’s daily newspapers attacking Ayatollah Khomeini. • January 9th 1978: Ulama organise a peaceful rally in Qom in response to this derogatory article. • When the police arrived, violence ensued: • 12 people killed • Hundreds injured • Some government buildings set on fire • Soon after, violent confrontations took place in at least seven other cities around Iran. Entrance of the Ulama (and the shopkeepers and merchants) into the revolutionary movement. • Khomeini became the symbol of the opposition, despite being in exile in Iraq. All revolutionaries came to unite under his leadership and under the banner of Shia’ism. • ‘The emergence of Khomeini as the central symbolic figure and charismatic leader provided unity to the entire national movement.’ (Srebeny-Mohammadi, Mohammadi)

9. The Second Phase • Tactics throughout 1978: • Manipulation of shia symbols and rituals • Strikes and demonstrations • Riots and burning down/bombing buildings • February 1978: • Mourners blocked from entering a mosque in Tabriz so resorted to burning down government buildings and symbols of Iran’s westernisation, such as theatres and liquor stores. • Army reacted by killing several rioters and arrested hundreds. • Khomeini described this riot as heroic resistance, thus essentially praising violent resistance. • August 1978: • Martial law in several major cities. • 19th August: 400 innocent men, women and children killed in an arson attack on a cinema in Abadan. Government blame opposition forces, but opposition forces claim it was a ploy by the government to discredit their opponents. Chief of Police also believes the attack was carried out by the government.

10. Bombings/arson attacks occurred on a daily basis, and many protestors were killed in each uprising, providing more 40 day commemorations. • The period also saw a continuation of the liberalisation process, with increasing numbers of prisoners being released. • Khomeini-inspired fundamentalists believed that direct confrontation with the regime, even if it involved bloodshed would be positive in terms of radicalising the movement, and exposing the atrocities of the regime. • Milani – As more protestors were killed, the revolution became larger and more difficult to contain. • Brink of revolution – the Shah dismissed the Prime Minister.

11. Opposition was split just as Iran was on the brink of revolution: • Constitutionalists (National Front, The Freedom Movement and a large number of the Ulama) favoured peaceful reform. • Revolutionaries (pro Khomeini forces and guerrilla organisations) favoured complete political and economic overhaul. • Late August 1978: Shah appoints Ja’far Sharif Emami as new PM. • Emami immediately grants various concessions to the Ulama. • The leader of the Constitutionalists offers the government 3 months to try and restore order. • National Front views Emami’s concessions as a sham and make further demands. • State newspapers take advantage of lack of censorship and print Khomeini’s picture on the front page.

12. September 8th1978: 3 days after a peaceful march of over a million people - Black Friday – massive rally in Tehran. The protestors had broken curfew, so the police fired on them. According to government figures, 86 people were killed, opposition claimed it was 3,000. • The Shah released 1400 more political prisoners, promised support to the families of victims of the cinema fire and restricted the power of the SAVAK. • October and November 1978: entry of workers and private and public employees into the revolutionary movementbrings month of parlysing nationwide strikes. • Strikes by the electrical and oil workers hammered the final nail in the coffin. • Electrical strikes created periodic power blackouts and forced loads of factories to shut down and lay off workers, who would then also join the demonstrators. • Government also obviously lost out on much needed oil revenues.

13. November 1978: Shah appointed General Gholam Reza Azhari as prime minister in a new military government • Meetings of over 3 people in Tehran were prohibited. However, strikes increased. Attempts to re-impose censorship were met by press strikes. • Return of oppositionists from abroad encouraged open activity by guerrilla groups. This included killing Iranian military and police leaders. • December 11th 1978: Massive peaceful demonstrations in several cities. (Over a million people in Tehran alone). During this demonstration, a resolution was passed asking Khomeini to return to Iran to lead the country.

14. February 1st 1979: After the Shah’s departure, and the dismantling of SAVAK, Khomeini returned to Iran and four days later appointed MehdiBazagaran as PM. • 2 days of fighting between the Imperial Guard and pro revolutionary forces ensued, in which hundreds died but eventually the Imperial Guard were defeated.

15. Media • ‘World’s most successful example to date of alternate media mobilising for revolution.’ (Srebeny-Mohammadi, Mohammadi) • Cassette tapes • Photocopied statements, known as elamieh. • ‘This element of uncoordinated spontaneous activity using small media is part of what makes the Iranian process so special.’ (Srebeny-Mohammadi, Mohammadi)

16. Nonviolent revolution? • Certainly plenty of nonviolent marches, strikes etc. • Secular opposition early on used letters, petitions, organisations, and political poetry readings. • However, once the initiative swung towards the religious opposition, the revolution became more violent: • Armed struggle was never condemned. Tabriz was praised by Khomeini. • Guerrilla forces played a prominent role in the revolution. • Marches very often turned to riots. • Bombing/burning of property was a major aspect of the resistance. • BUT, ‘human life was spared, even of those considered enemies, and except for rare incidents involving a very few persons at the high point of late revolutionary fervour, even American lives were inviolable.’ (Keddie)