Achaemenid Persian Empire and Alexander the Great: sources

1. Achaemenid Persian Empire and Alexander the Great: sources Krzysztof Nawotka

2. Alexander the Great: overview Born: July 356, son of Philip II of Macedonia and Olympias King: October 336 Conquered the Persian Empire: 334-327 Passage to India: 327-325 Proclaimed god: 324 Died: 11 June 323

3. Empire of Alexander

4. Alexander between different worlds: Macedonian Greek Persian Indian Egyptian Babylonian

5. Alexander: sources Sources (information from antiquity) and secondary literature (modern interpretation) Various categories: Written vs. Archaeological, iconographic, numismatic, topographic Literary vs. Documentary Classical (Greek and Latin) vs. Oriental Contemporary (primary) vs. Later (secondary)

6. Primary classical sources - literary Alexander’s companions: Ptolemy – bodyguard and king of Egypt Aristobulos – army engineer Onesicritus – helmsmen Nearchus – admiral Chares – chamberlain Callisthenes – court historian Cleitarchus – 4th/3rd c. author ALL GONE

7. Secondary classical sources - literary • Much later than Alexander • Written on the basis of primary sources • Flavius Arrianus (Arrian): • Roman consul and historian (c. 86-140 AD) • Works: • Anabasis of Alexander (Ptolemy, Aristobulos, Cleitarchus), • Indica (Nearchus)

8. Secondary classical sources - literary • Vulgate authores – based mostly on Cleitarchus: • Diodorus of Sicily (1st c. BC) • Q. Curtius Rufus (1st c. AD) • Iunius Iustinus (Justin) (2-4th c. AD?) – after Pompeius Trogus (1st c.BC/1st c. AD)

9. Secondary classical sources - literary • Plutarch (c. 50-120 AD) – philosopher and erudite • Works: • Life of Alexander • On fortune or virtue of Alexander • Used dozens of primary sources • Military authors: Frontinus • Anecdotes: Lucian, Aelian

10. Literary sources • Continuous narrative of events • Interpretations • Narrative of motives, thoughts, words • Reconstruction of chain of events a.k.a. historical processes

11. Primary classical sources - documentary GONE: Ephemerides – King’s journal Bematists – army surveyors Accounts Alexander’s letters: to Olympias, to Antipater (viceroy in the Balkans), to Phocion (Athenian general and politician)

12. Primary classical sources - documentary EXTANT: Aristotle’s letter to Aristotle (in Arabic translation) Alleged diplomatic letters between Alexander and Darius Spurious last will of Alexander (Liber de morte testamentoque Alexandri Magni – LDM)

13. Primary classical sources - documentary • Greek inscriptions: • Alexander’s letters to Greek states, e.g. to Chios • Decrees of Greeks states bestowing honors on Macedonians • Sources to learn constitutional history

14. Primary Persian sources

15. \ adam \ Dârayavauš \ xšâyathiya \ vazraka \ xšâyatha \ xšâyathiy ânâm \ xšâyathiya \ Pârsaiy \ xšâyathiya \ dahyûnâm \ Višt âspahyâ \ puça \ Aršâmahyâ napâ \ Haxâmanišiya \ thâtiy \ Dârayavauš \ xšâyathiya \ manâ \ pitâ \ Vištâspa \ Vištâspahyâ \ pitâ \ Arš âma \ Aršâmahyâ \ pitâ \ Ariyâramna \ Ariyâramnahyâ \ pitâ\ Cišpiš \ Cišp âiš \ pitâ \ Haxâmaniš \ thâtiy \ Dârayavauš \ xšâthiya \ avahyarâ diy \ vayam \ Haxâmanišiyâ \ thahyâmahy \ hacâ \ paruviyata \ âmâtâ \ ama hy hacâ \ paruviyata \hyâ \amâxam \ taumâ \ xšâyathiyâ \ âha \ th 1) I am Darius, the great king, king of kings, the king of Persia, the king of countries, the son of Hystaspes, the grandson of Arsames, the Achaemenid. (2) King Darius says: My father is Hystaspes; the father of Hystaspes was Arsames; the father of Arsames was Ariaramnes; the father of Ariaramnes was Teispes; the father of Teispes was Achaemenes. (3) King Darius says: That is why we are called Achaemenids; from antiquity we have been noble; from antiquity has our dynasty been royal. Monumental Achaemenid inscriptions (DB1: Bisitun)

16. Primary Persian sources Persepolis tablets: PTT: 139 (492-458) PFT: c. 30,000 (6th/5th c.) Clay, mostly Elamaite, also Aramaic and one Greek Accounts from central administration, e.g.: 130 liters of barley from the possessions of Amavrta have been received by Barîk-'El as his rations. Given in the town of Ithema, in the twenty-first year [of Darius] in the month Shibar [November/December 501]. [PFT 798]

17. Primary Persian sources Documents: • on parchemnet, papyrus, leather • found in Egypt, Bactria • Aramaic • Business letters written by officials, private documents (sales, marriage, divorce)

18. Persian archaeological sources: Cyrus’ tomb Pasargadae

19. Persian archaeological sources: Persepolis

20. Primary Babylonian sources • On clay tablets • Akkadian, cuneiform • Astronomical diaries: records of observation of sky every night, miscellaneous economic data (prices), religious and political history • Business documents, e.g. archive of Murašu of Nippur • Rare historical, e.g.: Alexander chronicle, Successors chronicle

21. Gaugamela in astronomical diary

22. Astronomical diaries • Extremely precise dates (Babylonian dates can precisely be ‘translated’ to ours): • Battle of Gaugamela: 1 October 331 • Surrounder of Babylon: 21 October 331 • Death of Alexander: 28 Daisios (Plutarch) = ?, diary: 29 Aiaru = 11 June 323

23. Alexander chronicle

24. [MU ... ITI ŠU? .. .. .. .. .. ina gišG]U.ZA-šú id-de-ku-šú mbi-/e\-[es?-su?],4' [šámAr-tak-šat-su (?)] MU-šú MU-’u u m{DIŠ (over erasure)}a-lik-sa u ERÍN-[MEŠ-šú]' [.. .. .. .. .. ERÍN]-MEŠ-šú i-u-tu TA lúERÍN.ME[Š ..]6' [.. .. .. .. x x i]d-duk lúERÍN ha-ni-e lúERÍN.MEŠ-šú š[á .. ..][(...) ...............]7' [.. .. .. ..] AN /RA?\ [..] m/da-ri\-ia-a-muš LUGAL GIN [MEŠ?] Year 330?  month IV? …… from] his [thr]one they removed him. Be[ssos?],[whom Artaxerxes?] as his name they named, ?][and Alexa(nder) and his troops' [.. .. .. .. .. [ ....... with] his few [troop]s from the troops [...... (...)]6' he killed/defeated. The Hanaean troops, his troops wh[ich ......]7' [.. .. .. ..] from] /Babylon?\ [to?] Darius, the king, went. Alexander chronicle

25. Oriental religious sources • Representing politics and history in religious terms • Prophecies ex post, e.g. Dynastic Prophecy written after Gaugamela • Alexander in Zoroastrian literature: guzastag (like Ahriman), leader of demons from the land of wrath

26. Sources: fundamental problems • No significant contemporary literary sources – hence image of Alexander filtered through preceptions of later generations • Lack of significant oriental sources: one-sided view (Greek, western)