CHAPTER THIRTEEN

1. CHAPTER THIRTEEN PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY ADULTHOOD

2. I. PHYSICAL FUNCTIONING Optimum physical and cognitive functioning is achieved in the 20s and 30s Young adulthood is the period of life when individuals’ developmental pathways begin to diverge significantly

3. A. Primary & Secondary Aging Primary aging: age-related physical changes that have a biological basis and are universally shared and inevitable Secondary aging: age-related changes that are due to social and environmental influences, poor health habits, or disease A minority of Canadian 20- to 34-year-olds die from disease; the majority of deaths are caused by unintentional injuries or suicide There are income-status differences in health, but it isn’t just that the rich are healthier and live longer than the poor; rather, the degree of socioeconomic inequality of a country is related to the overall health of its citizens Prosperous nations with high levels of social inequality experience poorer overall health than less wealthy but more egalitarian societies (continued)

4. Primary & Secondary Aging (continued) The factors associated with secondary aging can be viewed in relation to an individual, and with respect to a population The population approach looks at the health indicators that influence populations as a whole The health status of populations can be measured by looking at aggregate health indicators that measurequality of life, such as Disability-Adjusted Life Years (DALY), Health-Adjusted Life Expectancy (HALE) and Quality-Adjusted Life Years (QALY)

5. B. The Brain & Nervous System No matter what age an individual is, new synapses are forming, myelinization is occurring, and old connections are dying off The brain continues to mature throughout early adulthood: A major spurt in the frontal lobes begins in preadolescence and continues into early adulthood (may be associated with increases in the capacity for formal operational thinking and other kinds of abstract reasoning) Another peak in brain development that is believed to happen affects the cognitive skill of response inhibition, which involves our ability to carefully weigh all of our options. This may depend on the ability of the frontal lobes of the brain to regulate the limbic system Limbic system: the part of the brain that regulates emotional responses

6. C. Other Body Systems Declines in Physical Functioning While elite athletes notice the declines that start in the mid 20s, non athletes will not notice declines until middle age In early adulthood, almost everyone has ample physical capacity to meet the physical demands encountered in everyday life (continued)

7. Other Body Systems (continued) Heart and Lungs Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max): a measure of the body’s ability to take in and transport oxygen to various body organs Exercise capability declines ~ 1% per year beginning between 35 and 40 Strength and Speed Strength is at its peak in the 20s and 30s and then declines steadily (continued)

8. Changes in Grip Strength

9. Other Body Systems (continued) Reproductive Capacity The risk of miscarriage and other complications of pregnancy is higher for a woman in her 30s than in her 20s Fertility is at its highest in late teens and early 20s, and drops steadily thereafter Men’s reproductive capacity declines far more slowly, and healthy men are able to father children throughout their lives Women may begin ovulating intermittently as soon as the early 30s (continued)

10. Other Body Systems (continued) Immune System Functioning The two key organs in the immune system are the thymus gland and the bone marrow—they create two types of cells: T cells defend against essential internal threats, such as transplanted tissue, cancer cells, and viruses that live within the body's cells B cells fight against external threats by producing antibodies against such disease organisms as viruses or bacteria The thymus gland is largest in adolescence and declines dramatically thereafter in both size and mass increasing the susceptibility to disease Over a period of years and many stresses, the immune system may become less and less efficient

11. A Summary of Changes in Physical Functioning

12. II. HEALTH PROMOTION AND WELLNESS Early adulthood is a relatively healthy period of life, but risky behaviours—having multiple sex partners or substance abuse, for example—along with generally poor health habits, can be problematic

13. A. Sexually Transmitted Infections Most sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, genital herpes, and HIV—are more common among young adults than in any other age group New cases of STIs have been increasing, especially for chlamydia HIV is on the rise in homosexuals, heterosexuals, females, and Aboriginals About 58,000 Canadians now live with HIV and/or AIDS, of which about 11,800 are women 76% of new HIV infections in women are due to heterosexual contact AIDS determinants are difficult to measure because of the long delay between exposure and diagnosis

14. Sexually Transmitted Infections

15. B. Health Habits & Personal Factors Health Habits The Alameda County Study in California found that in every age group, those with poorer health habits had a higher risk of mortality Five health practices were identified: getting physical exercise, not smoking, drinking, over- or under-eating, and getting regular sleep Healthy lifestyle choices of early adulthood have cumulative effects (continued)

16. Health Habits and Personal Factors (continued) Social Support Adults with adequate social support have a lower risk of disease, death, and depression than do adults with weaker social networks or less supportive relationships A Sense of Control Those who are high in self-efficacy are more likely to follow medical advice with regard to health problems such as chronic headaches Locus of control also contributes to health Optimists show larger benefits from medication than pessimists do

17. C. Intimate Partner Abuse Prevalence: Worldwide, women are more likely than men to be injured by an intimate partner In Canada, ~ 8% of women and 7% of men had been physically abused by a spouse (1999) Within the Aboriginal population spousal abuse is higher (25% of women, 13% of men were abused) Persons living in common-law relationships are more likely to be victims of lethal and non-lethal spousal violence than those who are legally married Violence by former partners is reportedly more severe and lethal than assault by a current partner It is estimated that gay men and lesbians are about as likely to be abused by a partner as are heterosexual women (continued)

18. WHO Data on Physical Abuse of Women

19. Intimate Partner Abuse (continued) • Characteristics of abusers: • Tendency toward irrational jealousy • Need for dependency in the partner and control in a relationship • Sudden mood swings • Quick temper • Aggressive men • High school drop-outs • Frequent unemployment • Alcohol or drug user • Characteristics of victims • More likely to have been abused as children • Young women (16 to 24) • Alcohol or drug user Causes of Partner Abuse Cultural attitudes contribute to rates of abuse (continued)

20. Intimate Partner Abuse(continued) Effects of Abuse on Individuals Abused women are at heightened risk for physical injury, sexual and reproductive disorders, and homicide They may develop feelings of anxiety, depression, and low self-esteem Some become so despondent that they consider or attempt suicide as an escape Witnessing abuse affects children’s development (continued)

21. Intimate Partner Abuse (continued) Prevention: Vigorous law enforcement can help Training programs for law enforcement officials and hospital emergency room personnel that teach them to recognize signs of abuse are essential to prevention Provide victims with problem-solving skills and temporary shelters that may prevent re-victimization Community-wide and school-based approaches that seek to educate the public about intimate partner abuse and to change attitudes about the acceptability of violence in intimate relationships, so that abuse will not happen in the first place

22. D. Sexual Assault Canadian law prescribes three levels of sexual assault: Level 1: sexual assault (e.g., kissing, touching, oral or anal sex, intercourse or other forms of penetration) Level 2: sexual assault with a weapon or resulting in bodily harm Level 3: aggravated sexual assault (e.g., wounding, maiming, disfiguring or endangering the life of the victim) (Continued)

23. Sexual Assault(continued) Prevalence A Canadian survey (2002): 85% of the adult victims of all sexual offences (including sexual assault) were women Most occur in the context of social or romantic relationships Fewer than 20% of all sexual assaults are committed by strangers Of reported cases in 2002, 10% of assaults were committed by a friend, 41% by an acquaintance, 28% by a family member (continued)

24. Rates of Sexual Offences in Canada

25. Sexual Assault(continued) Effects Psychological effects of being a victim of sexual violence include the development of sexual dysfunctions and post-traumatic stress disorder The psychological effects may persist more than a decade in many victims Date rape is one particularly troubling type of sexual violence among young adults Men’s belief that “no means yes” may contribute Many cases are premeditated and involve the use of alcohol and drugs Prevention of sexual violence often involves training potential victims to avoid situations in which such episodes are likely to occur

26. E. Mental Health Problems The risk of virtually every kind of emotional disturbance is higher in early adulthood than in middle age Causes of Mental Disorders Early adulthood is the period during which adults have both the highest expectations and the highest level of both role conflict and role strain Mental disorders are believed to result from an interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors Mental disorders tend to run in families Increasingly, disturbances in specific brain function have been found (continued)

27. Mental Health Problems (continued) Anxiety and Mood Disorders The most common mental disorders are those that are associated with intense or prolonged fear and anxiety Anxiety disorders include phobias, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and panic disorder Problems associated with moods are the next most common type of mental difficulty (depression is the most frequent of these disorders) (continued)

28. Mental Health Problems(continued) Alcohol and Substance Disorders Alcohol abuse and drug addiction peak in the years between 18 and 40 For the age group 20-24, 53% of male drinkers and 23% of female drinkers were considered to be regular heavy drinkers Binge drinking, common among post-secondary school students, is associated with a variety of problem behaviours, including substantially higher rates of unprotected sex, physical injury, driving while intoxicated, and trouble with the police (continued)

29. Mental Health Problems(continued) Personality disorders: Occasionally the stresses of young adulthood (likely combined with some type of biological factor) lead to serious disturbances in cognitive, emotional and social functioning that are not easily treated To be diagnosed with any of the disorders in Table 13.2, a young adult has to have been exhibiting the behaviour since mid- or late adolescence, and the person should demonstrate the behaviour consistently, across all kinds of situations Some of these disorders improve, but most remain problematic for life (continued)

30. Personality Disorders

31. Mental Health Problems(continued) Schizophrenia Affects 1% of Canadians A serious mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thought such as confused thinking, delusions and hallucinations Disturbances of thought may interfere with normal function Hospitalization may be necessary New medications help many to cope

32. III. COGNITIVE CHANGES Like most aspects of physical functioning, intellectual processes are at their peak in early adulthood The intellectual peak lasts longer than many early researchers had thought, and the rate of decline is quite slow Current research makes it clear that the rate and pattern of cognitive decline varies widely—differences appear to be caused by a variety of environmental and lifestyle factors, as well as by heredity

33. A. Formal Operations & Beyond Piaget’s formal operational stage emerges in mid- to late adolescence, but some theorists dispute Piaget’s hypothesis that this is the final stage of cognitive development Postformal thought: types of thinking that are associated with a hypothesized fifth stage of cognitive development Relativism: the idea that some propositions cannot be adequately described as either true or false Dialectical thought: a form of thought involving recognition and acceptance of paradox and uncertainty Reflective judgement: the ability to identify the underlying assumptions of differing perspectives on controversial issues

34. B. Intelligence and Memory IQ scores remain quite stable across middle childhood, adolescence, and early adulthood Crystallized intelligence depends heavily on education and experience. It consists of the set of skills and bits of knowledge that every adult learns as part of growing up in any given culture Fluid intelligence involves more "basic" abilities that depend on the efficient functioning of the central nervous system and less on specific experience Research suggests that adults maintain crystallized intelligence throughout early and middle adulthood, but fluid intelligence declines fairly steadily over adulthood, starting at perhaps age 35 or 40

35. Changes in Overall Intellectual Skill

36. IV. POST-SECONDARY EDUCATION In today’s high-tech, global economy, post-secondary education—any formal educational experience that follows high school—has become a necessity for virtually everyone The number of students enrolled in some level of post-secondary education in Canada has been on the rise A higher proportion of highly-educated immigrants and recessionary labour markets also encourage young adults to further their studies

37. A. Developmental Impact Canada has the world’s highest proportion of 25- to 64-year-old college and university graduates combined (49%) More women than men 25-34 years of age now possess a bachelor’s (62%) or a master’s degree (54%) People who succeed in completing a degree or diploma have a clear income advantage, tend to have higher job satisfaction and less unemployment Post-secondary graduates have higher real and perceived status; they are more likely than non-graduates to get high-status managerial, technical, and professional positions, and they are viewed by those who make hiring decisions as more desirable employees than non-graduates (continued)

38. Earnings of Post-Secondary Graduates

39. Developmental Impact(continued) Longitudinal evidence suggests that the longer a person remains in a post-secondary school, the better her performance on Piaget’s formal operational tasks and other measures of abstract reasoning During their years of post-secondary enrolment, students' academic and vocational aspirations change, as college- and university-level classes enable students to make realistic assessments of their academic abilities Advances in moral and social reasoning, as well as increases in the capacity to empathize with others’ feelings, are also linked to college or university attendance