There are two main stages in food processing

1. Food Provenance – Processing and production Modern processing techniques have made it possible to produce a wide variety of food products to the same quality, standard, colour, flavour, shape and size every time. There are two main stages in food processing Primary processing. Secondary processing Primary processed foods are either Used on their own or mixed with other foods and turned into other food products. Foods are processed straight after harvest or slaughter, to get them ready to be eaten or ready to be used in other food products. e.g wheat flour turned into bread or pasta milk into yoghurt e.g wheat grains turned into flour heat treatment of milk

2. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing. Secondary processing Whole peaches turned into canned peach slices in fruit juice. Oranges turned into orange juice or marmalade Vegetables peeled and chopped and turned into soup. Beans / lentils cooked , mixed with other ingredients and turned into burgers. Plant foods ( fruits + vegetables ) -sorted into different sizes -trimmed of leaves / stalks -washed -damaged are discarded -wrapped in packaging -identification stickers -stored Animal foods ( meat+ poultry after slaughter ) -Blood drained out -Skin, feathers removed -Internal organs ( liver, kidney) removed -Carcase is hung -Meat carcase cut into separate joints -Poultry is trimmed and trussed Beef turned into minced beef then into burgers. Chicken meat turned into nuggets or goujons Fish filleted and turned into fish cakes / fish fingers

3. Primary processing – cereals • Wheat • Rye • Rice • Maize • Barley • Oats Cereals are the seeds or grains or grasses. Cereals are grown around the world and which type of cereal grown depends on the climate For wheat the main purpose of primary processing is to separate the outer layers of the grain from the inner layers. To achieve this the cereal must be milled. Milling is the process of grinding down the wheat grain.

4. Primary processing – cereals – wheat to flour Combine harvesters are used to cut the wheat plants and a revolving thresher inside them separates the wheat grains from the rest of the plant. Grains are then screened for impurities – sorted by size – scrubbed to remove dirt- the softened with water called conditioning.

5. Primary processing – cereals – wheat to flour • Milling wheat into flour • Purpose of milling is to separate different parts of the grain. • Three important parts of the grain separated during milling are • Endosperm • Bran • Germ Aleurone layer Endosperm Bran Germ

6. Primary processing – cereals – wheat to flour Aleurone layer contains lots of dietary fibre Endosperm contains mostly starch and protein Bran contains lots of dietary fibre Germ contains the genetic information and nutrients that would turn the seed into a new plant if it started to grown in soil. https://fabflour.co.uk/fab-flour/how-flour-is-milled/

7. Wholemeal flour After washing wheat grains are placed in the hopper. The grains drop through hole in bottom of hopper and pass through rollers where they are crushed. Grain passes through series of steel rollers set close together which rotate at different speeds. After crushing 100% of the grain is used to make wholemeal flour

8. White flour Flour is sieved to remove the outside layers – the bran. 72% of grain left mostly endosperm sieve Reducing rollers gradually reduce the flour in size until it becomes very fine sieve White flour Wheat germ

9. Brown flour Flour is sieved to remove the outside layers – the bran 85% of grain some of bran and aleurone layers are removes Wheatmeal / brown flour

10. Milling stonegroundflour Some flour is still made by a more traditional milling process. The wholewheat grain is ground by passing it between two flat millstones. During the milling process the bottom stone remainss fixed while the top stone rotates. Grooves on the face of each stone help to grind the grain. This is a slow and gentle process which generates warmth in the flour ensuring the wheatgerm oil naturally present in the grain is spread throughout the flour, which will improve the flavour of the bread.

11. Primary processing – cereals – wheat to flour Extraction rates The extraction rate is the percentage of flour that is taken from the whole grain to make flour.

12. Bread and flour regulations A 72% extraction rate white flour is almost pure endosperm. As the germ and outer layers of the grain are removed, the micronutrients are removed too. To rectify this the flour is fortified during processing. Fortified means that micronutrients are added to the flour. • The Bread ad Flour Regulations 1998 state that the following micronutrients must be added to white flour. • Calcium • Iron • Vitamin B1 (thiamin) • Vitamin B3 ( niacin)

13. Types of flour

14. Organic flour Organic flours are made from wheat grown and processed naturally without the use of chemicals. The soil association is an official body that approves the use of the term ‘organic’ Farmers + producers must meet the organic certification standards to be able to claim that their product is organic. Organic flours available in many types – self raising, plain, wholemeal

15. Primary processing – preparing milk for sale In the UK milk is supplied by dairy cows but is also available from sheep and goats. A dairy herd is usually milked twice a day. Milk is the ideal substance for bacteria to grow in. To prevent food poisoning and extend the shelf life of the milk, heat treatments are used. The heat treatment is carried out as soon as possible after the milk is collected. Milk is also homogenised during the heat treatment.

16. Primary processing • The milk collected from dairy herds goes through many • heat treatment processes • pasteurisation • sterilised • UHT • Microfiltered • Secondary processing • Milk is used to make a number of products during secondary processing. • These are known as dairy products • butter • cheese • cream • yoghurt

17. The fresh milk is placed in a large tank and cooled. The fat naturally rises to the surface of the milk and is skimmed off with special equipment. Depending on how much fat is removed, different milks are produced. Whole milk Contains all the fat that is naturally produced. (approx 3.9% fat) Semi skimmed contains approx half the amount of fat naturally produced. ( 1.5-2% fat) Skimmed milk contains virtually no fat. ( 0.5-0.9% fat) 1% fat cows milk

18. Fresh milk is heat treated to kill pathogenic bacteria and to make the milk safe to drink for several days if stored in fridge. Pasteurisation Milk heated very quickly to 72°C for 15 seconds then rapidly cooled to 4°C Store for 5 days in fridge Known as HTST high temperature, short time Does not affect the flavour or colour. Does notaffect the nutrients

19. Fresh milk is heat treated to kill pathogenic bacteriaand to make the milk safe to drink for several days if stored in fridge. There are different types of heat treatment Ultra heat treatment UHT Milk heated very quickly to 135°C for 1 second then rapidly cooled. Stored in sealed multilayer package. Called long life milk. Can be stored unopened for several months because of the higher temperatures and special packaging. Once opened becomes high risk and must be used with a few days. Slight change in colour Slight change in flavour Vitamin B12 is lost over time

20. Fresh milk is heat treated to kill pathogenic bacteriaand to make the milk safe to drink for several days if stored in fridge. There are different types of heat treatment Sterilised Put into special bottles and heated to 110°C for 30 seconds Can be stored unopened for several months. Once opened becomes high risk and must be used with a few days. Darken in colour Change flavour ( effect on lactose ) sweeter. Protein is denatured Vitamin B1 and B12 are lost

21. Fresh milk is heat treated to kill pathogenic bacteriaand to make the milk safe to drink for several days if stored in fridge. There are different types of heat treatment Micro-filtered milk Milk goes through an extra fine filtration system, which prevents souring milk passing through. Milk is pasteurised. Can extend the shelf life of milk up to 45 days when stored in fridge and average of 7 days once opened Nutrients are not affected.

22. Homogenisation Milk is mainly water. It is an emulsion and has tiny drops of fat suspended in it. As oil and water do not mix if milk is left to stand, the fat droplets in it will float to the top and form a layer of cream. To prevent this from happening most milk is homogenised. Homogenisation involves forcing the milk at pressure through small holes. This breaks up the fat droplets and spreads them evenly throughout the milk to prevent separation of a cream layer. Homogenisation means that the milk has no cream layer.

23. More processing…. Evaporated Concentrated by boiling / sterilising milk, heated to reduce the liquid and kill the bacteria removing 60% of the water content removed Condensed Like evaporated milk with sugar added to it. The sugar helps to preserve the milk. Dried powder Powder made by taking away the water from the milk and applying heat to dry it. Mix with water to use.

24. Nutritional value Milk is often referred to as a ‘complete food’ as it provides many of the nutrients that are needed for health.

25. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat Meat – what do we mean? Beef Lamb Pork Veal ( young cows) Goat Game Venison (deer) Rabbit

26. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat The blood is allowed to drain away. Skin and hide ( leather) are removed. Carcase is split open lengthways and internal organs removed Offal are removed. Beef carcase split in half completely because so big. Pig, sheep, lamb carcases are often but not always kept whole.

27. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat - offal Offal ? What is that? Offal is the word used to describe those parts of cattle, pigs and sheep which are cut away (off-falls) from the carcase when it is being prepared for sale. Inside Heart Liver Kidneys Sweetbreads Tripe External Oxtail Ox cheeks Pig trotters Tongue

28. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat Meat carcases are hung for a few hours at 1°C Hanging the meat allows the natural enzymes in it enough time to start to tenderise the protein and develop its particular flavour. Hanging meat develops its flavour and texture.

29. Primary processing – meat Meat carcases are hung for a few hours at 1°C Hanging meat develops its flavour and texture. Before slaughter, animals store carbohydrate glycogen in their muscles. After slaughter the glycogen is broken down to lactic acid which helps to preserve the meat. Hanging the meat allows the natural enzymes in it enough time to start to tenderise the protein and develop its particular flavour.

30. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat After hanging the carcase is jointed, cut, bones removed and presented for the sale of raw meat. Cuts of meat are prepared by butchers in shops or supermarkets to meet the different needs of consumers. A wide range of cuts are available, giving greater choice and variety. • Carcase meat is prepared into cuts, joints and mince to make it • Convenient to buy in smaller amount • Convenient to buy in smaller portions – eg chops, steaks • Easier and quicker to cook. • Easier to store safely

31. Food Provenance – Processing and production Primary processing – meat cuts A carcase of beef, pork or lamb is divided into different cuts – which may vary according to the carcase weight and quality. Therefore cuts of meat vary in energy and nutrients, composition, weight and fat level. Although there are these variations, retail cuts of meat are influenced by the structure and composition of the carcase, e.g. the position of bones and muscles. Knowing where meat comes helps you know how to prepare, cook and serve it.

32. Primary processing – meat

33. Primary processing – buying meat Not too much fat Bright red or pink colour Fresh meat should have these qualities A firm springy textures Moist flesh but not wet or slimy Fresh smell

34. Primary processing – meat

35. Primary processing – meat The muscle tissue in meat is made up of long thin fibres. These fibres are held together in bundles by connective tissue. There are two types of connective tissue: Collagen- holds the bundles of muscle fibres together Elastin - binds the muscle together or the fibre to the bone Different cuts of meat have different features. Tender cuts of meat have little connective tissue and can be cooked quickly and roasted ( steaks, topside and rib ) Tougher cuts of meat have more connective tissue and require slow moist cooking methods ( shin, brisket, chuck, oxtail )

36. Primary processing – poultry The blood drains away Head and feet are usually removed Feathers and internal organs are removed. The carcass is trussed , which means legs and wings are tied neatly together ready for sale Chickens Turkeys Ducks Pheasant Geese

37. Primary processing – fish Over 200 types of fish eaten. Freshwater fish Seafish Shellfish • Caught in rivers / lakes • Caught in the sea • Reared on specially created fish farms

38. Primary processing – fish Oily fish mackeral salmon tuna trout sardines herring White fish Round cod haddock Coley Flat Plaice Turbot Halibut Dover sole Shellfish Molluscs oysters mussels cockles clams Outer shell needs to be removed to get flesh out of fish Crustaceans lobster shrimp prawn crabs Tougher outer shell Low in fat Flesh is dark due to the oil Contains Omega 3 fatty acids ( help prevent heart disease) Firm white flesh Very low in fat

39. Primary processing – fish The internal organs are removed ( gutted ) The fish may be left whole or filleted to remove the bones. Sometimes just one part of the fish is used for example tail of monkfish.

40. Primary processing – fish The flesh of fish is very similar to meat, except that the muscle fibres are found in short blocks not long bundles. There is no elastin. They also only have a thin sheet of connective tissue surrounding them. This ensures the fish is tender and only requires a short cooking time. The internal organs are removed ( gutted ) The fish may be left whole or filleted to remove the bones. Sometimes just one part of the fish is used for example tail of monkfish. • Basic cuts of fish are simple and related to the size of the fish. • Fish are sold • Whole • Cut into steaks • Tail pieces • Fillets and cut

41. Primary processing – processing fish

42. Primary processing – buying fish Firm flesh Bright red gills Fresh fish should have these qualities Fresh smell Moist not slimy A clear, shiny eyes that are not sunken