Sociology of Sport Encyclopedia:

1. Sociology of Sport Encyclopedia: Influential People and Organizations Sarah Button SM 111 Sociology of Sport

2. A Arthur Ashe A revolutionary player in the game of tennis, Arthur Ashe broke through athletic, racial, and political barriers in his lifetime. Ashe was the first African American to win a U.S. Open title and also the only African American to win a men’s singles title at Wimbledon. Ashe’s influence was also felt off the court as he helped establish the Association of Tennis Professional (ATP). Politically, Ashe was a major spokesperson in the fight against apartheid in South Africa. Not only did he want equality for Africans, but also for African Americans within the United States. In 1992, Ashe announced he had contracted the AIDS virus from a faulty blood transfusion. He died just a year later, but used his platform as a revolutionary athlete as a way to spread the message about AIDS. Out of it came the Arthur Ashe Foundation for the Defeat of AIDS that furthered research and education about the disease. Arthur Ashe’s influence as an athlete and activist will continue to live on through his ground-breaking work.

3. B Bobby Knight Look up the word “deviance” in the dictionary, and Coach Bobby Knight’s name would likely be below it. Knight coached men’s basketball at Indiana University from 1971 to 2000, when he was fired for his unruly behavior. Bobby Knight is the winningest coach in Division I men’s basketball history and known for building championship teams. He lead his teams at IU to three NCAA titles and 11 Big Ten championships. Knight also coached gold medal-winning teams in the ‘84 Olympics and ‘79 Pan American Games. Knight left Indiana in 2001 to coach at Texas Tech until 2008. Despite these achievements, Knight’s outrageous behavior on and off the court built him a unpredictable reputation. He is still well-known for his outbursts and tantrums during games and being physical with athletes. Knight ‘s time at Indiana has earned him status as a legendary coach. Below are some of the most controversial events that happened during his career at Indiana University. • Feb. 23, 1985 -- Throws a chair across the floor in a loss against Purdue. Resulted in three technical fouls, ejection from the game. • March 25, 1992 -- Knight pretends to whip black player, receives national attention and disapproval from NAACP and other black leaders. • June 1999 -- Christopher Foster accuses Knight of choking him during an altercation in the parking lot of a restaurant. After much publicity, no charges were filed. (Indystar.com, 2008)

4. C Pierre de Coubertin Pierre de Coubertin was the founder of what we know as the Modern Olympics. When France lost the Franco-Prussian War, de Coubertin felt that the French’s lack of fitness was what lead to the country’s defeat. De Coubertin wanted to educate people about the value of physical fitness, and set off traveling abroad researching how people were being active. He noticed that sports united people and began thinking how this could be effective on a global scale. In 1896, de Coubertin organized the Modern Olympics in Athens, Greece. To this day, the Olympic Games reinforce the ideas of national pride, world peace and unity, bringing people together from countries all over the world in the name of one thing; athletics.

5. D Dick Ebersol As chairman of NBC Universal Sports & Olympics, Dick Ebersol is one of the most powerful men in sports media. Ebersol is in charge of all NBC and USA networks sports programming and in charge of NBC Universal’s association with the Olympic Games. He has negotiated some of the biggest media contracts including that of the Olympic Games broadcast by NBC, the Super Bowl, National Football League, National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball, and NASCAR. Ebersol is consistently touted as one of the smartest and most creative businessmen in sports and in 1996 received The Sporting News’ award as the “Most Powerful Person in Sports.”

6. E ESPN Entertainment and Sports Programming Network, otherwise known as ESPN, was the first ever all-sports network. Despite having a small following early in its existence, ESPN has grown into an essential part of everyday culture for some. In 2005, ESPN’s networks were viewed by 95 million people each week and is a number that continues to grow. Some of its cable channels include ESPN2, ESPN Classic, ESPN Today, and ESPN Deportes. ESPN has really branched out to all facets of the media; ESPN.com, ESPN The Magazine, ESPN Interactive (online), and ESPN Radio. Going global is the next step for ESPN’s future, bringing a new world of sports programming to curious viewers. The power, growth, influence, and demand for ESPN’s services are certain to grow over time and will be looked towards for further progression in the area of sports broadcasting.

7. F Brett Favre Brett Favre was best known for his time as the Green Bay Packers’ quarterback from 1992 until his retirement in 2007. While there, he broke all NFL records for total passing yards, won the 1996 Super Bowl, was named the NFL’s MVP for 3 seasons in a row, and during those seasons, lead the NFL in total touchdown passes. In 2007 he decided to hang up his hat and retire. His retirement was short-lived and he came back to play for the New York Jets in 2008. After that season he retired yet again, and quickly returned for a second time, this time playing for the Minnesota Vikings in 2009. It is common for some athletes to have difficulty adjusting to life without playing or being involved with their sport once he/she has reached retirement. It is possible Favre might have experienced this difficulty adjusting to life without football, thus prompting him to come out of retirement multiple times. Although some have criticized Favre for his indecisive behavior, his football accomplishments are plentiful and is still known as one of the best, if not THE best quarterback in the NFL.

8. G Gerald Ford A great example of connecting sports and politics (and the University of Michigan) would be the link to President Gerald Ford. The University of Michigan's Most Valuable Player in 1934, Ford played both defensive line and center. He played in the College All-Star Game and the East-West College All-Star Game in 1935. The Detroit Lions and the Green Bay Packers offered to sign him, but he turned both down in order to pursue his education in law at Yale University. In 1974, Gerald Ford became the 38th president of the United States.

9. H Tony Hawk Tony Hawk got his first skateboard at the age of nine, and by the time he turned 14, he had become a professional skateboarder. By way of the X Games skateboarding competitions, Hawk received much recognition and soon became known as one of the world’s best skateboarders. His fame not only helped put skateboarding on the map, but also the X Games. The X Games have given an outlet to the young, edgy, adventurous demographic seeking to be athletically active. Hawk has since created his own brand with his own skateboarding company, the release of his own video games, skateboarding videos, and his own extreme sports tour. Hawk has truly become the face of skateboarding and extreme sports.

10. I IAAF The International Association of Athletic Federations (IAAF) is the organization responsible for governing the sport of track and field on the international level. They organize and run events worldwide and standardize rules and timekeeping methods. In 2009, the IAAF began investigating female sprinter Caster Semenya for excessive amounts of testosterone in her body. After being tested, it was reported that Semenya allegedly had no womb or ovaries, but internal testes, making her testosterone production three times that of a typical woman. The IAAF is waiting on final confirmation results from her gender test, but has offered to pay for gender surgery if results prove her to be a hermaphrodite. Only 18 years old, she holds a gold medal and world record for the 800-meter run. The issue of gender specificity has never been a question in professional sports before, but Semenya’s case will be a topic to consider in many sports realms in the future.

11. J Michael Jordan Many think of Michael Jordan as the best player in the history of the National Basketball League (NBA). He also established himself as a pop culture icon through his relationship with the media. The media was Jordan’s most beneficial tool during his career in basketball. Jordan was able to use his celebrity and winning personality to market his own clothing line and scent of cologne. Jordan also began endorsing Nike early in his career and spun off his own shoe, Air Jordan. Wildly popular, the shoe garnered $153 million in its first season of production. Jordan’s other endorsement projects reach to Gatorade, McDonald’s, Wilson, and Hanes Underwear. Michael Jordan is his own brand. He has truly made an impact on how athletes endorse and promote themselves and the games they play.

12. K Billie Jean King Even though Billie Jean King was a extraordinary professional women’s tennis player, she was a powerful advocate for gender equity off the tennis court as well. During her career in tennis, King won six Wimbledon titles, four U.S. Open championships, and for five consecutive years, was ranked No. 1 in the world. Some may consider her biggest tennis accomplishment to be her defeat of male tennis star Bobby Riggs in a “Battle of the Sexes” match in 1973. Her win was a liberating event for female athletes and women in general. It questioned and challenged the dominant gender ideology that valued men as superior and strong, and women as inferior and the weaker sex. Billie Jean King proved that women had the right to be athletic and could compete just as well as men. King went on to help form the Women’s Tennis Association (WTA), founded WomenSports Magazine, and also the Women’s Sports Foundation to continue fighting for gender equity for women in sports.

13. L Lou Gehrig Describe as quiet and humble, Lou Gehrig had an impressive career with the New York Yankees in the 1920’s and 30’s. Unfortunately, his career was cut short when he was diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; better known as ALS. ALS is a rare disease that attacks the nervous system. Today, it is commonly referred to as “Lou Gehrig’s Disease.” Gehrig’s affliction with this disease has brought, and continues to bring about research to find a cure.

14. M Muhammad Ali Muhammad Ali is known as one of the best boxers to have ever fought. During his career in the 60’s, Ali joined the black Muslim group called Nation of Islam. He refused to fight in the Vietnam War after being drafted because of his religious stance. This caused him to lose his heavyweight title and was suspended from boxing for three and a half years until 1970. Despite that religious and political struggle, Ali remained a force to be reckoned with in the ring and continued his career until 1980. He was diagnosed with Parkinson’s Disease in 1984 and has since worked as a philanthropist. The Muhammad Ali Parkinson Center was created for research of the disease and Ali continues his work supporting the Make-A-Wish Foundation and the Special Olympics.

15. N Martina Navratilova Originally from Czechoslovakia, Martina Navratilova became an American citizen and played in her first U.S. Open in the same year, 1975. From then on she dominated the world of women’s tennis. Navratilova has earned 168 Single’s titles and 176 Double’s titles. In terms of Grand Slam titles, she has 18 singles wins and 40 doubles wins. Another unique fact about the female tennis star is that she publicly announced in 1980 that she was a lesbian. Unfortunately, Navratilova lost $10 million in endorsement contracts with her announcement. This negative reaction did not stop Navratilova from advocating equality for gays and lesbians. In 1993, she took legal action against Colorado’s anti-gay Amendment 2. The Rainbow Endowment is an organization that Navratilova works with that financially supports gay and lesbian causes. For her philanthropic work, Navratilova received the Human Rights Campaign’s National Equality Award in 2000.

16. O Jesse Owens Track star Jesse Owens showed the world what African American athletes were capable of at the 1936 Berlin Olympics, just as the ideas of Adolph Hitler’s supreme Aryan race began to take off. Owens won gold medals in the 100-meter, 200-meter, long jump, and the 4 100-meter relay. His success was symbolic for African Americans, the United States, and for countries that were against Hitler’s Nazi government. African Americans now had a role model and living proof of a successful black athlete, and especially one that defied the idea of white supremacy. The United States and other countries that stood against Hitler’s ideology saw that Owens’ victory could stand for a victory much greater against Nazi reign.

17. P Michael Phelps Swimmer Michael Phelps gave record-breaking performances at the 2008 Beijing Olympics, earning him eight gold medals – a record in its own right. But Michael Phelps faced a different kind of challenge when a photo surfaced of him smoking a bong just months after his exceptional Olympic performance. The media in this case did not work in Phelps’ favor. He lost his sponsorship deal with Kellogg’s and received no funding from USA Swimming for three months. Phelps’ apologized immediately for his actions, but the image may be tough for the public to shake.

18. Q Equipoise and the steroid industry The use of performance enhancing drugs are becoming more prevalent in professional sports and are showing up in the media regularly. This is sending the wrong message to young athletes wanting to pursue careers in athletics and looking to stay as competitive as possible. Steroids have been evolving and the industry is growing rapidly. The wide range of these drugs makes it difficult to define and prohibit exact steroids. Equipoise, a steroid used to build muscles in horses and make them run faster, is becoming popular among professional athletes as the performance enhancing drug of choice. It increases muscle mass, stamina and increases pain tolerance. Equipoise is taken by injecting the steroid into the muscles in both humans and horses. Major League Baseball has banned equipoise. Players Mark McGwire and Jose Canseco both admitted to using equipoise to improve their performances in baseball.

19. R Jackie Robinson April 15, 1947 marked the date when Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier by becoming the first African American to play in major league baseball. Robinson constantly faced harassment, taunts, and threats during his time at the Brooklyn Dodgers. His incredible athletic talent soon silenced many critics and those disapproving of integration in baseball. In Robinson’s first season playing, he hit 12 home runs, helped lead the Dodgers to win the National League Pennant, and was named Rookie of the Year. Jackie Robinson opened doors for many African American athletes to come and worked to promote civil rights. Robinson served for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and in 1962 became the first African American inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame. His work lives on through the Jackie Robinson Foundation, providing financial aid and mentoring young people.

20. S Arnold Schwarzenegger Bodybuilder, movie star, and politician; Arnold Schwarzenegger has built an impressive career, but it is what he did during his time as a bodybuilder that catches the attention of those in the world of sports. The seven–time Mr. Olympia and seven-time Mr. Universe admitted to using performance enhancing drugs during his time as a bodybuilder. By today’s standards, the use of performance enhancing drugs are thought to be a form of deviant overconformity in sports; the willingness to accept social norms and following them to excessive points. Schwarzenegger’s use of steroids in the 1970’s introduced and exposed the public and athletes in other sports to the idea of performance enhancing drugs. Since then, the steroid industry has boomed with multiple products for athletes and is now a common topic regarding sports ethics in competition. The use of steroids is becoming popular among professional athletes and is even trickling down to college and high school levels. Maybe, with Schwarzenegger’s position of California’s governor, he could use his office as a platform to bring about change and education about performance enhancing drugs use.

21. T Tiger Woods A child prodigy in golf, Tiger Woods went pro in 1996 and won his first Masters Tournament at age 21. Tiger has been a source of inspiration for athletes of mixed-races. Woods himself is a mixture of Thai, Chinese, African American, Native American, and European. Just as Michael Jordan has had a significant marketing impact establishing his own brand, Tiger Woods has as well. In 2004, he made $80 million in endorsements compared to his $6.4 million in prize earnings. Woods has been a long time endorser of Nike, Gatorade, and General Motors. Recent news of his extramarital affairs has put a damper on Woods’ public image, though. Many of his sponsors are sticking by him, but it will be interesting to see how his image holds up in the long run.

22. U University of Illinois In 2007, the University of Illinois had to retire its mascot, “Chief Illiniwek “ because activists and the NCAA found the portrayal of the Chief to be an offensive and inaccurate representation of Native Americans . The university has used the mascot since 1926 and has been a major part of the school’s history. Illinois still plans on using the names “Illini” and “Fighting Illini,” even though activists are also trying to ban the use of the words as well.

23. V Michael Vick When Michael Vick began his career in the NFL, he looked like a promising, talented quarterback with the Atlanta Falcons. But, in 2007, Vick got caught running a dog-fighting ring on his property in Virginia. The quarterback spent 23 months in jail and had to pay $1 million in restitution. Examining the situation closer, it may be that participation in this type of violent activity could have been a result of Vick’s upbringing. Vick grew up in a lower-class area well-known for gang and drug activity in Virginia. Dog-fighting was likely a typical part of the culture in that area. Although this does not excuse Vick from these inhumane activities, it offers an explanation of his involvement in dog-fighting.

24. W Serena Williams Serena Williams has been powerful a force in the field of women’s tennis ever since she first started in 1997. As an African American female athlete in a predominately white sport, Williams built up her career by winning the U.S. Open in 1999, the Australian Open, French Open, and Wimbledon. She was the second black female to ever win the U.S. Open title. Serena, and her older sister, Venus (who also plays professional tennis) have set admirable examples for girls and female athletes . The sisters have even taken an interest in fashion design. In recent news, Serena Williams received much media attention for an angry outburst at a judge at the 2009 U.S. Open over a foot fault. This type of deviance expressed by Venus came to a surprise to the public, especially since it is very uncommon to see a woman react with so much anger. She was fined $10,500 for her actions and issued a public apology.

25. X X Games Growing increasingly popular these days is the market for alternative sports. One of the biggest names in alternative, or extreme, sports is the X Games. These action-packed, edgy activities are gaining the attention of youth culture that is looking to break away from structured, performance centered sports. The X Games features events like skateboarding, BMX, free boarding, snowboarding, wakeboarding, and motocross. The X Games created an entirely new part of culture, reaching a relatively young demographic. The Games satisfies the power and performance model valued by our culture and is looking to expand its market on a global level.

26. Y Yao Ming Standing 7’6” tall, Yao Ming has been the Asian phenomenon making his mark in the National Basketball Association (NBA). He was drafted to the Houston Rockets in 2002 where he helped turn the team around with a 43-39 record, a great improvement from their 28-54 record the year before. Ming’s popularity has contributed greatly to the globalization of basketball, especially bringing the sport to Asian countries. In the future, there are hopes of starting professional basketball in China just like the United States, and it is players like Yao Ming that will help that idea get off the ground.

27. Z Babe Zaharias Most famously known as a golf and tack and field star, Mildred “Babe” Didrikson Zaharias was a blazing revolutionary female athlete well before her time. Babe was an all-around athlete and actually dabbled in not only golf and track and field, but basketball, tennis, swimming, and baseball. She went on to win two gold medals in the 1932 Olympics in track and field. Following her time in track, she turned to golf, where she played for 20 years and earned 82 tournament wins. Zaharias stands as a strong example for young female athletes to look up to. In a time where it was deemed “unhealthy” for women to participate in sports, she proved that women, too, could be just as athletically talented as men could.