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The Struggle for Indian Independence: 1900-1941

This chapter explores India's socio-political landscape from 1900 to 1941, highlighting the dramatic population growth, environmental pressures, and class divisions within society. As the Indian National Congress emerged to oppose British rule, tensions escalated due to discriminatory practices against the Hindu majority and the fears of the Muslim community. Key events, including the Amritsar Massacre and the rise of leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, are discussed in the context of the independence movement, ultimately leading to the partition of India and the formation of Pakistan.

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The Struggle for Indian Independence: 1900-1941

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  1. Chapter 30 Striving for Independence

  2. India: Early 20th century • 1900-1941, India’s population increased dramatically • Environmental pressure, deforestation-declining farm land • Society divided into classes: peasants, wealthy property owners, urban craftspeople, traders, workers • Many languages; English common medium of communication of Western-educated middle class • Majority practiced Hinduism • Muslims about one-quarter of population-majority in northwest & in eastern Bengal

  3. British Rule & Indian Nationalism • Colonial India ruled by viceroy & administered by Indian Civil Service • Technology mitigated dangers of industrialization • suppressed development ofradical politics • maximized benefit to Britain & Civil Service • At turn of century, most Indians accepted British rule, but racism & discrimination inspired Hindus to establish Indian National Congress -1885 • Muslims, fearful of Hindu dominance & encouraged by Britain founded All-India Muslim League in 1906 • Two independence movements

  4. British Rule & Indian Nationalism • British resisted India’s efforts to industrialize • India’s first steel mill established in 1911 • symbol of national pride • 1918-1919, tensions increased between Brits & Indians • Vague promises of self-government • Turning Point-Amritsar Massacre • British general ordered troops to fire into a crowd of 10,000 demonstrators

  5. Mahatma Gandhi & Militant Nonviolence • English educated lawyer-practiced in South Africa • Returned to India & joined Indian National Congress • Political ideas included ahimsa (nonviolence) & satyagraha(search for truth) • Moved political efforts from elite to masses

  6. India Moves Toward Independence • In 1920s, Indians controlled education, economy, & public works • Business people looked to Gandhi’s successor Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)—for leadership • World War II divided the Indian people • Indians contributed heavily to war effort, • Indian National Congress opposed war • Minority joined Japanese side

  7. Partition & Independence • In 1940, Muslim League’s leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, demanded country for Muslims • After World War II, Britain’s new Labour Party government prepared for independence • Plan was rushed through before full compromise reached • Mutual animosity between Indian National Congress & Muslim League led to partition of India into two states: India & Pakistan • Violence & massive disruption followed as Hindus left predominantly Muslim areas & Muslims left predominantly Hindu areas • Hundreds of thousands died

  8. Sub-Saharan Africa, 1900–1945Colonial Africa: Economic & Social Changes • Outside Algeria, Kenya, & South Africa, few Europeans lived in Africa • Africa exported raw materials-few Africans benefitted • Africans forced to work in European-owned mines & plantations under harsh conditions for little or no pay • Colonialism provided little modern health care • Colonial policies worsened public health, undermined African family, & gave rise to large cities & racial discrimination.

  9. Religious & Political Changes • During colonial era, many Africans turned to Christianity or Islam • Missionaries introduced Christianity (except in Ethiopia, where it was indigenous) • Islam spread through influence & example of African traders • Contrast between liberal ideas imparted by Western education & realities of racial discrimination contributed to rise of nationalism

  10. Background to Revolution: Mexico in 1910 • Independence-1821- Mexican society deeply divided-few wealthy families-majority poor peasants • Concentration of land ownership increased after independence • In 1910, General PorfirioDiaz ruled for 34years • Mexico City modernized showplace • brought wealth to few businessmen • discrimination against nonwhite majority • average Mexican’s standard of living declined

  11. Revolution/Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920 • Mexican Revolution haphazard social revolution • Leaders represented different segments of society • Madero overthrew Diaz in 1911, then he was overthrown by Huerta in 1913 • Constitutionalists Carranza & Obregon led disaffected middle class & industrial workers • Organized armies that overthrew Huerta in 1914

  12. Mexican Revolution • Emiliano Zapata led peasant revolt • Pancho Villa organized army in northern Mexico • Neither able to lead national revolution • Zapata defeated & killed by Constitutionalists -1919 • Villa assassinated in 1923

  13. Revolution/Civil War in Mexico, 1911–1920 • Constitutionalists took over Mexico after years of fighting, 2 million casualties, & tremendous damage • Adopted agrarian reforms – proposed social programs that appealed to workers & middle class • Mexican Revolution lost momentum in 1920s • In 1928, National Revolutionary Party founded • Cardenas, removed generals from government, redistributed land, replaced church-run schools with government schools, & expropriated foreign-owned oil companies • When Cardenas’s term ended in 1940, Mexico still land of poor farmers-small industrial base • Mexican Revolution established stable political system, tamed military & Catholic Church, & laid foundations for later industrialization of Mexico • Revolution sparked new creativity in arts

  14. Transformation of Argentina • At end of 19th century, railroads & refrigerators allowed Argentina to become major exporter of meat • Pampas transformed into great producer of meat & wheat • Government represented interests of oligarquia,small group of wealthy landowners • Only cared about farming • Foreign companies built railroads, processing plants & public utilities • Exported agricultural goods • Imported manufactured goods

  15. Brazil & Argentina, to 1929 • Brazil’s elite coffee & cacao planters & rubber exporters resembled Argentine elite • used wealth to support lavish lifestyle • allowed British to build railroads, harbors • imported all manufactured goods • Both Argentina & Brazil had small but outspoken middle classes-demanded share in government-looked to Europe as model • Disruption of European industry & world trade in World War I weakened land-owning classes in Argentina & Brazil • Urban middle class & wealthy landowners shared power at expense of landless peasants & urban workers • During 1920s, peace & high prices for agricultural exports allowed both Argentina & Brazil to industrialize • introduction of new technologies left them dependent on advanced industrial countries • Aviation & radio communications introduced during 1920s, but European & U.S. companies dominated both sectors

  16. The Depression & Vargas Regime in Brazil • Depression hit Latin America very hard- significant turning point for region • As value of exports plummeted & economies collapsed, Argentina & Brazil, turned to authoritarian regimes • In Brazil, Vargas staged a coup & followed a policy that increased import duties & promoted national firms & state-owned enterprises • Industrialization brought usual environmental consequences: mines, urbanization, slums, conversion of scrubland to pasture, & deforestation • Vargas instituted reforms that benefited urban workers-did nothing to help landless peasants • Economic recovery unequally distributed • In 1938, Vargas staged a second coup, abolished constitution, made Brazil a fascist state & created precedence of political violence • Overthrown in military coup in 1954

  17. Argentina After 1930 • Depression hurt Argentina-political consequences delayed for years • In 1930, General Jose Uriburuoverthrew popularly elected president & initiated thirteen years of rule by generals & oligarquia • In 1943, Colonel Juan Peron led another coup-modeled government on Germany’s Nazi regime • As World War II turned against Nazis, Peron & his wife Eva Duarte Peron appealed to urban workers • Created new base of support-allowed Peron to win presidency & established populist dictatorship • Sponsored rapid industrialization-spent lavishly on social welfare projects • Peron unable to create stable government-after his wife died in 1952-overthrown in military coup

  18. ConclusionPolitics &Economics under Imperialism • Peoples of sub-Saharan Africa & India remained under colonial rule after war • Elites worked toward independence-ordinary people wanted social justice • Though politically independent, Mexico, Argentina, & Brazil economically tied to industrializing nations • Argentina & Brazil moved toward economic independence but fell victim to social unrest, militarism & dictatorship in the process

  19. Conclusion:The Problems of Independence • India gained independence from colonial rule, but was torn apart by ethnic conflict • Desire for independence did not always unite people against colonial rulers because of social, ethnic, & religious divisions within their populations

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