Motivation and Emotion Motivational Concepts Hunger The Need to Belong

2. Motivation and Emotion • Motivational Concepts • Hunger • The Need to Belong • Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition • Embodied Emotion • Expressed and Experienced Emotions

3. Motivational Concepts • Drive-reduction theory • Arousal theory • A hierarchy of needs

4. DRIVE -REDUCTION THEORY • Drive-reduction theory assumptions • We have physiological needs. • Unmet needs creates a drive. • That drive pushed one to reduce the need.

5. Motivation • Need or desire that energizes and directs behavior • Incentives • Environmental stimuli that attract or repel, depending on individual learning histories • Physiological need • Basic bodily requirement

6. Drive-reduction theory • Idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates us to satisfy the need • Homeostasis • Tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

7. Motivational Concepts Bill Aron / PhotoEdit Arousal theory • Humans are motivated to engage in behaviors that either increase or decrease arousal levels. • High arousal levels motivate engagement in behaviors that will lower these levels. • Low arousal levels motivate activities that can increase arousal—often through curiosity. David Samuel Robbins/Corbis

8. Performance peaks at lower levels of arousal for difficult tasks, and at higher levels for easy or well-learned tasks. (1) How might this phenomenon affect runners? (2) How might this phenomenon affect anxious test-takers facing a difficult exam? (3) How might the performance of anxious students be affected by relaxation training?

9. Maslow Viewed human motives as pyramid (right) At the base are basic physiological needs; at the peak are the highest human needs. A Hierarchy of Needs

10. How do instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, and arousal theory contribute to our understanding of motivated behavior? After hours of driving alone in an unfamiliar city, you finally see a diner. Although it looks deserted and a little creepy, you stop because you are really hungry. How would Maslow’s hierarchy of needs explain your behavior?

11. Hunger • The physiology of hunger • The psychology of hunger • Obesity and weight control • CLOSE-UP: Waist management

12. MONITORING STOMACH CONTRACTIONS • Cannon and Washburn(1912) • Using a swallowed balloon attached to recording device, information about feelings of hunger were discovered.

13. Hunger: The Physiology of Hunger • Body chemistry and the brain • Glucose • Is form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues • Triggers feeling of hunger when low • Hypothalamus and other brain structures • Arcuate nucleus: Pumps appeitite-suppressing hormones • Ghrelin: Involves hunger-arousing hormones secreted by empty stomach

14. Set point • Point at which your “weight thermostat” is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore lost weight. • Basal metabolic rate • Body’s resting rate of energy output.

15. THE APPETITE HORMONES • Ghrelin: Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends “I’m hungry” signals to the brain. • Insulin: Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose. • Leptin: Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger. • Orexin: Hunger - triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus. • PYY: Digestive tract hormone; sends “I’m not hungry” signals to the brain

16. Hunger occurs in response to ________ (low/high) blood glucose and ________ (low/high) levels of ghrelin.

17. Hunger: The Psychology of Hunger • Taste preferences: Biology and culture • Chemistry and environment play role in feelings of hunger and taste preferences. • Preferences for sweet and salty tastes are genetic and universal; other preferences are learned. • Acceptability of foods is culturally influenced. HOT CULTURES LIKE HOT SPICES (Sherman & Flaxman, 2001)

18. The Physiology of Hunger • Tempting situations • Friends and food: Presence of others amplify natural behavior tendencies • Serving size is significant: Quantity of consumed food is influenced by size of serving, dinnerware, cultural norms. • Selections stimulate: Food variety promotes eating.

19. Hunger • Obesity and weight control • Obesity has physical and social risks. • Obese 6- to 9-year olds are 60 percent more likely to suffer bullying. • Adult obesity is linked with lower psychological well-being, increased depression, and employment discrimination. • Worldwide, obesity has doubled since 1980, with 1.46 billion adults now overweight.

20. Past and projected overweight rates, by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

21. After an eight-hour hike without food, your long-awaited favorite dish is placed in front of you, and your mouth waters in anticipation. Why?

22. Obesity and Weight Control • The survival valueof fat • Hunger-driven desire for energy-rich fat or sugar has evolutionary roots. • Obesity health risks • Shortened life • Reduced quality of life • Increased health care costs

23. Why don’t obese people not lose weight? • A sluggish metabolism: Fat has lower metabolic rate. • A genetic handicap: Genes explain two-thirds of the person-to-person differences in body mass of adopted children and identical twins • Sleep, friends, food, activity—Obesity risk factors • Sleep loss • Friendship with obese friend • Fattening world • Activity level

24. WAIST MANAGEMENT • Begin only if you feel motivated and self - disciplined. • Exercise and get enough sleep. • Minimize exposure to tempting food cues. • Reduce portion sizes. • Don’t starve all day and eat one big meal at night. • Beware of the binge. • Before eating with others, decide how much you want to eat. • Remember, most people occasionally lapse. • Connect to a support group.

25. American Idle: Couch Potatoes Beware—TVWatching Correlates With Obesity Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit Inc.

26. Which THREE of the following five strategies help prevent unwanted weight gain? a. Proper sleep d. Eating with friends b. Regular exercise e. Joining a support group c. Eating the heaviest meal in the evening

27. The Need to Belong • The benefits of belonging • The pain of being shut out • Connecting and social networking

28. The Need to Belong • Benefits of belonging • Social bonds and cooperation have survival value. • Group membership is worldwide. • All people experience anxiety, loneliness, jealousy, or guilt when something threatens or dissolves social ties. • When need for relatedness, autonomy, and competence are satisfied, a deep sense of well-being results.

29. AP Photo/Vincent Yu THE NEED TO CONNECT Six days a week, women from the Philippines work as “domestic helpers” in 154,000 Hong Kong households. On Sundays, they throng to the central business district to picnic, dance, sing, talk, and laugh. “Humanity could stage no greater display of happiness,” reported one observer (Economist, 2001).

30. The Need to Belong CBS/ Getty Images • Pain of being shut out • Worldwide, many forms of ostracism are used. • Brain scans reveal that ostracism causes physical pain. • Social isolation and rejection foster depressed moods or emotional numbness and can trigger aggression. • Risk for mental decline and ill health may also occur. SOCIAL ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION Successful participants on the reality TV show Survivor form alliances and gain acceptance among their peers. The rest receive the ultimate social punishment as they are “voted off the island.”

31. How have students reacted in studies where they were made to feel rejected and unwanted? What helps explain these results?

32. Connecting and Social Networking • Mobile networks and social media • At the end of 2010, the world had 6.9 billion people and 5.3 billion mobile cell-phone subscriptions. • But phone talking now accounts for less than half of U.S. mobile network traffic. • Three in four U.S. teens text. Half (mostly females) send 60 or more texts daily. • Among 2010’s entering American collegians, 94 percent reported using social networking sites.

33. Connecting and Social Networking The net result: Social effects of social networking • Are social networking sites making us more, or less, socially isolated? • Does electronic communication stimulate healthy self-disclosure? • Do social networking profiles and posts reflect people’s actual personalities? • Does social networking promote narcissism?

34. Suggestions for a Good Balancing Act

35. Social networking tends to ________ strengthen/weaken) your relationships with people you already know, _________ (increase/decrease) your self-disclosure, and ________ (reveal/hide) your true personality.

36. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition • Historic emotion theories • James-Lange Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion • Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and Emotion Happen at the Same Time • Schacter-Singer two-factor theory: Arousal + label = emotion • Zajonc, Ledoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the two-track brain

37. Emotion: Arousal, Behavior, and Cognition • Emotions are adaptive responses that support survival. • Emotional components • Bodily arousal • Expressive behaviors • Conscious experiences

38. Emotion: Two Big Questions • Does your bodily arousal come before or after your emotional feelings? • How do thinking and feeling interact? Does cognition always come before emotion?

39. Historic Emotion Theories • James-Lange Theory: Arousal comes before emotion • Experience of emotion involves awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli • Cannon-Bard Theory: Arousal and emotion happen at the same time • Emotion - arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

40. JOY EXPRESSED IS JOY FELT According to the James - Lange theory, we don’t just smile because we share our teammates’ joy. We also share the joy because we are smiling with them. REUTERS/Matt Sullivan

41. Emotion Theories • Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Arousal + Label = Emotion • Emotions have two ingredients: Physical arousal and cognitive appraisal. • Arousal fuels emotion; cognition channels it. • Emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of arousal. • Spillover effect: Spillover arousal from one event to the next—influencing a response

42. THE SPILLOVER EFFECT Reuters/CORBIS Arousal from a soccer match can fuel anger, which can descend into rioting or other violent confrontations.

43. Emotion Theories • Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus: Emotion and the two-track brain • Zajonc • Sometimes emotional response take neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex and goes directly to amygdala. • Some emotional responses involve no deliberate thinking. • Lazarus • Brain processes much information without conscious awareness, but mental functioning still takes place. • Emotions arise when an event is appraised as harmless or dangerous.

44. The Brain’s Pathways For Emotions The two-track brain processes sensory input on two different pathways. (a) Some input travels to the cortex (via the thalamus) for analysis and is then sent to the amygdala. (b) Other input travels directly to the amygdala (via the thalamus) for an instant emotional reaction.

45. Summary of Emotion Theories

46. According to the Cannon-Bard theory, (a) our physiological response to a stimulus (for example, a pounding heart), and (b) the emotion we experience (for example, fear) occur ______ (simultaneously/sequentially). According to the James-Lange theory, (a) and (b) occur ________ (simultaneously/sequentially).

47. According to Schachter and Singer, two factors lead to our experience of an emotion: (1) physiological arousal and (2) ________appraisal. Emotion researchers have disagreed about whether emotional responses occur in the absence of cognitive processing. How would you characterize the approach of each of the following researchers: Zajonc, LeDoux, Lazarus, Schachter, and Singer?

48. Embodied Emotion • The basic emotions • Emotions and the autonomic nervous system • The physiology of emotions • Thinking Critically About: Lie detection

49. Embodied Emotion • The basic emotions • Izard (1977): Isolated 10 basic emotions; most present in infancy • Others: Add pride and love • A different approach • Do our different emotions have distinct arousal footprints?

50. Embodied Emotions • Emotions and the autonomic nervous system • ANS mobilizes body for action with stress hormones from adrenal glands, sugar from liver into bloodstream, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and slowed digestion. • When crisis passes, ANS slows and hormones gradually leave bloodstream.