RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

2. Meaning • Research is an endeavor to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method. • “Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. -Redman and Mory. • “Is an organized enquiry designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem.” -Fred Kerlinger. • “ Is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new information or relationships and to expand and to verify existing knowledge”. -Francis Rummel. • “Is essentially an investigation, a recording and analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge. - Robert Rose • Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

3. Common meaning of RM • Research is an art of scientific investigation • It is a movement from the known to unknown. • It is a systematic method of finding solution to a problem. • Search for knowledge through objective. • It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison & experiment.

4. Objectives of Research • The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of scientific procedures. • The objectives are: • To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it – Exploratory or Formulative Research. • To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group – Descriptive Research. • To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research. • To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables – Hypothesis-Testing Research.

5. It extends, verifies or corrects knowledge. It answer question such as what, when, where, why and how? • It enables us to have a better understanding of our world. • It establishes generalizations and laws and thereby contributes to building of verifiable and sound theories. • Research initiates, formulates, deflect and clarifies theory.

6. It helps delineate causal relationships and enables better control over events. • It helps develop new tools, theories and concepts to better comprehend unknown aspects of life and the physical world. • It aids in purposive planning at the national level and thus promotes national development. • It throws up facts and relevant data to support informed decision making. It enables testing of alternative approach to an issue of interest.

7. Motivation • Desire to understand the cause-effect relationship of some social phenomenon. • Desire to discover new theories concepts and techniques in order to gain knowledge more efficiently & with in a short time. • Both curiosity & necessity may be the important motivating factors of research. • Understanding, analyzing and explanation of social phenomenon are primary motivating factors.

8. Utility of Research • Research is an aid to decision making. • Research facilitates the process of thinking, analysis, evaluation, and interpretation of the business environment, and of the various business situation. • Research provides a basis for innovation. • Research and developments helps to develop new products and to modify the existing product. • Research identifies problem areas. • Research establishes the relationship not only between variables in each functional area, but also between the various functional areas.

9. Research is an aid to forecasting which is an effective tool in the hands of manager. • Research helps all the managerial functions. • Research helps in the economic utilization of resources. • Research is an aid to management information system. • Research is helpful in the formulation of policy and strategy. • Market and marketing analysis may be based on research.

10. Characteristics of Research • Research is directed towards the solutionof a problem. • Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. • Research demands accurate observation and description. • Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new purpose. • Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures. • Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered. • Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the data collected and conclusions reached. • Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems. • Research requires courage. • Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity. • Research is carefully recorded and reported.

11. Concept of Theory • EMPIRICISM- Is said to denote observations and propositions based on sense experience and/or derived from such experience by methods of inductive logic, including mathematics and statistics.” Empirical research relies on experience or observation. It is database research coming up with conclusions, which can be verified by experimentation. The evidence collected through experimentation or empirical studies is considered to be the most powerful support for a given hypothesis. Empirical research emphasizes facts and daily experiences or observations, often at the cost of neglecting theory.

12. DEDUCTIVE THEORY • Deduction is a form of inference that purports to be conclusive- the conclusion must necessarily follow from the reason given. These reasons are said to imply the conclusion and to represent a proof. This is a much stronger and different bond between reasons and conclusion than is found with induction. • For a deduction to be correct, it must be both true & valid –that is the reason given for the conclusion must agree with he real world . • Deduction is valid if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if the reason are true. Ex- reason- 1.John is a regular employee. reason- 2. All regular employees can be trusted. Conclusion – John can be trusted.

13. Deductive Research Approach THEORY @ Deductive reasoning work From the more general to the More specific. @ Sometime this is Informally called a “Top-down” approach. @ Conclusion follows Logically from available Facts. HYPOTHESIS OBSERVATION CONFIRMATION

14. INDUCTIVE THEORY • Inductive argument is radically different. There is no such strength of relationship between reasons and conclusions in induction. To induce is to draw a conclusion from one or more particular facts or pieces of evidence. The conclusion explains the facts, and the facts support the conclusion. ex- Conclusion- Light bulb has burned out. Reason 1.- The light should go on when you push the switch. Reason 2.- If the bulb is burned out, the light will not function.

15. Inductive Research Approach @ Moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. @ Conclusion is likely based on facts. @ Involves a degree of uncertainty. @ This is like “Bottom up” approach. THEORY TENTATIVE HYPOTHESIS PATTERN OBSERVATION

16. Deductive VS Inductive • Induction is usually described as moving from the specific to the general, while deduction begins with the general and ends with the specific. • Arguments based on laws, rules and accepted principles are generally used for Deductive reasoning, observation tend to be used for inductive Arguments.

17. SCIENTIFICMETHOD • ‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organized knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge in a particular field of enquiry. • Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation and interpretation. • Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.

18. CHARACTERISTIC OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD • It relies on empirical evidence. • It utilizes relevant concepts. • It is committed to only objective considerations. • It results into probabilistic predictions. • The methodology is made known. • Aims at formulating scientific theories.

19. Concepts :- • Concepts are logical constructions or abstractions created from sense impressions, and experiences. • Concept are the symbols that sciences works with, they constitute the linguistic apparatus of science. • A concept is a word which is so constructed and defined that observation become possible. • It is an idea that is expressed in words. • It consist of both a word and a definition. • Concept name possible or imagined properties of things, people or event. • The role of concept is to establish some kind of link with the social world.

20. Concept ‘group’ refers to plurality of persons having direct or indirect communication, standardized patterns of interactions, common goals, shared norms and some degree of interdependence. • Concept is a word or a set of words that express a general idea concerning the nature of something or the relations between things, often providing a category for the classification of phenomena. • Concept are regarded very important in the theoretical framework that sets a context for the research, as being involved in the statement of research problem, as determining the data that will be collected and how they will be categorized, and as being essential in describing the findings.

21. A concept is bundle of meaning or characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and like classifying & categorizing object or events that have common characteristics beyond the single observation create concept. Ex- a sociologist makes a statement : “Disorganized families produce more crime” Ex- Social integration- the attachment of a person to groups. Ex- Social Change- is the modification in established patterns of social relationships, social institution, social roles, social systems.

22. Ex- social growth- is quantitative change ( change in no. of agriculture production) Ex- Development- is qualitative change ( Increase in literacy, reduction in poverty, increase in employment.) Ex- Personality, Family, Marriage, Crowd, Social action, Adjustment, movement, Caste, Class. All are concepts of behavioral sciences. Sometimes in defining one concept, other words are used. Ex- Intelligence may be defined as ‘Mental activity’. - Weight may be defined as ‘Heaviness of object’. Ex- religiously – its dimensions could be religiosity beliefs, practice, emotions, understanding, effects.

23. Sources of concept According to Norman B. concept come from four sources. • A theoretical perspective that is dominant within a discipline or social scientific community. ( e.g. Conflict Theory ) • A specific research problem. (e.g. Political corruption) • Commonly used theoretical concepts that are given a new definition (e.g. social class.) • Everyday concept that are given precise meanings ( e.g. Crowd)

24. The Construct :- • A construct is a concept devised to aid an scientific analysis and generalizations. • A construct is generally inferred from an observable phenomenon. • It is an abstraction from reality, selecting & focusing on certain aspects of reality and ignoring others. • A construct is also a concept with the added meaning of having been deliberately and consciously invented or adopted for a special scientific purpose. Ex- Intelligence is a concept & Intelligence quotient (IQ) is a scientific construct which enables a behavioral scientist to measure the intelligence of a person.

25. As a scientific construct, the concept enters into theoretical schemes and is related in various ways to other constructs. • In sociology a few ex of constructs are- Status, Role, Modernization, System, Structure. Ex- social class- if defined in terms of social status is defined by using indices like occupation, income & education or by combination of all three. This is measured variable.

26. The Variable • A variable is characteristic that takes on two or more values • It is a characteristic that is common to a number of individuals, groups, events, object, etc. Ex- Gender is a variable consisting of two categories of Male & Female. The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

27. Types of Variables • Dependent & Independent • Experimental & Measured • Discrete & Continuous • Qualitative & Quantitative • Categorical & Numerical

28. Dependent & Independent • Independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable the presumed effect. • The independent variable thus is one which explain or accounts for variations in the dependent variable. • A dependent variable is one which changes in relationship to changes in another variable. • An independent variable is one whose change results in the change in another variable. Ex- A teacher want to know which method of teaching is more effective in the students understanding. - Lecture method, Question- Answer method, Visual method or combination of two or more of these methods. Variable which is dependent in one study can be independent in another.

29. Experimental & Measured The experimental variables spell out the details of the investigator’s manipulations. Ex – Study on factors affecting student’s achievement ( high or low marks) The measured variables refer to measurement Ex- Rural development (M V ) may be assessed in terms of increase in income, literacy level, infrastructure etc.

30. Qualitative & Quantitative • The Quantitative variable is one whose values or categories consist of numbers and if differences between its categories can be expressed numerically. Ex- Age, Income, Size The Qualitative variable is one which consists of discreet categories rather than numerical units. This variable has two or more categories that are distinguished from each other. Ex- Class ( lower, middle, upper) Gender ( Male, Female )

31. Categorical & Numerical Categorical and Numerical variables used for Qualitative & Quantitative variables. Ex- ( Occupation, Religion, Caste, Gender, Education, Income ) are made up of sets of categories or attributes which must follow two rules. The categories must be distinct from one another. Numerical variables are broken down into units in which the numbers used carry mathematical meaning. The numbers may be either Discrete or Continuous that is in some order / sequence.

32. CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH • Purpose clearly defined. • Research process detailed. • Research design thoroughly planned. • High ethical standards applied. • Limitations frankly revealed. • Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs. • Findings presented unambiguously. • Conclusions justified. • Researcher’s experience reflected.

33. QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH • Systematic • Logical • Empirical • Replicable • Creative • Use of multiple methods

34. NEED FOR RESEARCH • EXPLORATION • DESCRIBE • DIAGNOSE • HYPOTHESIS • INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS

35. SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH • RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING • Throws light on risks and uncertainty • Identify alternative courses of action • Helps in economic use of resources • Helps in project identification

36. Solves investment problems • Solves pricing problems • Solves allocation problems • Solves decision making issues in HR • Solves various operational and planning problems of business and industry

37. Provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system. • Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. • For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure. • For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood.

38. For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights. • For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work. • For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.

39. PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH • Not similar to science • Uncontrollable variables • Human tendencies • Time and money • Lack of computerization • Lack of scientific training in the methodology of research

40. Insufficient interaction between university research departments and business establishments • Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give information • Lack of code of conduct • Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance

41. Poor library management and functioning • Difficulty of timely availability of published data. • Ignorance • Research for the sake of research-limited practical utility though they may use high sounding business jargon.

42. ROLE OF RESEARCH IN DECISION-MAKING • Decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative from the available set of alternatives. • Management is chiefly concerned with decision-making and its implementation. • These decisions should be based on appropriate studies, evaluations and observations. • Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a fast paced decision-making environment.

43. According to Herbert A Simon, decision-making involves three activities: • Intelligence Activity - scanning the environment for identifying conditions necessary for the decision. • Designing Activity - identifying, developing and analyzing the alternative courses of action. • Choice Activity - choosing the best course of action from among the alternatives.

44. FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL DECISIONS • INTERNAL FACTORS – factors present inside an organisation such as resources, technology, trade unions, cash flow, manpower etc. • EXTERNAL FACTORS – factors present outside the organisation such as government policies, political factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework, geographic and cultural factors etc. • QUANTITATIVE FACTORS – factors that can be measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost factors etc.

45. QUALITATIVE FACTORS – factors that cannot be measured in quantities such as organizational cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of technological change etc. • UNCERTAINITY FACTORS – factors which cannot be predicted.

46. TYPES OF RESEARCH • Descriptive vs. Analytical Research Descriptive Research is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present. Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available.

47. Applied vs Fundamental Research Applied Research or Action Research is carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision. Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.

48. Quantitative vs Qualitative Research Quantitative Research is employed for measuring the quantity or amount of a particular phenomena by the use of statistical analysis. Qualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality of a particular phenomenon.

49. Conceptual vs Empirical Research Conceptual Research is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones. Empirical Research is a data based research which depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions without due regard for system and theory.

50. Some other types of research.. • One-time Research – Research confined to a single time period. • Longitudinal Research – Research carried on over several time periods. • Diagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it. • Exploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also known as formulative research.