Colliding Worlds

1. Colliding Worlds A mural by Tlaxala artist DesiderioHernándezXochitiotzin depicts the central place of Doña Marina in facilitating encounters between Hernán Cortés (on the right) and the indigenous peoples of Mexico.

2. The Meeting of Two Worlds This famous sixteenth-century engraving by the Flemish artist Theodore de Bry shows Columbus landing in Hispaniola (Haiti), where the Taino people bring him presents, while the Europeans claim the island for God and queen. In light of its long-range consequences, this voyage was arguably the most important single event of the fifteenth century.(BildarchivPreussischerKulturbesitz/Art Resource, NY)

3. The Spanish Caribbean • Spanish mariners meet indigenous Tainos (Arawaks) • Originally from Orinoco River valley in South America, settled in Caribbean in late centuries BCE through 900 CE • Columbus uses Hispaniola (Haiti-Dominican Republic) as base for trading with Tainos • Disappointed that Tainos had no spices, silks • Recruit locals Taino to mine gold instead • Recruitment of labor came from the institution known asEncomienda: Forced labor • Spanish settlers: encomenderosassumed the responsibility to look after their health, welfare, and encourage Christianity Reconstruction of Taino village in Cuba

4. One of the earliest European depictions of Native Americans was this engraving of 1505. The caption informed readers that American peoples lived in communal society, where men took several wives but none had private possessions, and that they routinely smoked and consumed the bodies of slain enemies. How might such representations have shaped European ideas about native Americans? 

5. From Mining to Plantation Agriculture • Tainos occasionally rebel, but outgunned by Spanish military technology • Smallpox epidemics begin 1518 • Spaniards launch raids to kidnap and replace workers, spread disease further • Taino society disappears by middle of 16th century • 4 million to a few 1,000 • Limited gold production causes new interest in exploiting Caribbean for sugarcane production • Requires massive importation of slaves Surviving cultural elements of Taino: Canoe, hammock, hurricane, maize, and tobacco

6. Conquest of Mexico and Peru • Spanish conquerors (conquistadores) explore other territories • Hernán Cortés and 450 men bring down Aztec empire in Mexico (1519-1521) • Advantages • Smallpox destroys besieged Tenochtitlan • Steel weapons, muskets, cannons, horses • Divisions of indigenous peoples, Ex. Dona Marina • Francisco Pizarro and 600 men bring down Inca empire in Peru (1532-1533) • Calls conference of warring Inca rulers, massacres them all

7. This late-sixteenth-century painting idealized the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire. Shown on the wall is Motecuzoma, captured by the Spaniards attacking his palace, and he is pleading with the Aztecs to surrender

8. Conquest of Peru • In this illustration from Felipe GuamanPoma de Ayala’s letter of complaint to the Spanish king, conquistadores decapitate Atahualpa after executing him by strangulation in 1533.

9. Significance of the Aztec and Incan Conquest • The Aztec and Inca empires both had clear lines of political authority, and both had the means to mobilize massive populations, collect taxes or tribute to maintain their societies, and recruit labor for public works projects. • Vast empires in Mesoamerica and South America • Despite this, Spanish conquistadors were able to conquer

10. Empires of Aztec and Inca

11. Spanish Colonial Administration • Spanish administration based in New Spain (Mexico) and New Castile (Peru), extended to Florida and Buenos Aires • Mexico city built atop Tenochtitlan, founded Lima in Peru • Viceroys (King’s reps.) rule, but supervised by local courts called audiencias designed to prevent buildup of local power bases • Considerable dispute with Spanish homeland

12. Portuguese Brazil • 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divides entire (non-Christian) world between Spain and Portugal • Cabral explored coast for Brazil • Portugal claims Brazil • Little interest at first, but increases as other imperial powers take notice • Exploited for sugarcane production Cabral as he sees Brazil for 1st time

13. Treaty of Tordesillas: Lines of Demarcation

14. Settler Colonies in North America • Spanish towns, forts, missions on east coast of North America, some on west coast • Florida, Virginia, Maine, Vancouver Island • Spanish dislodged in 17th century by French, English, Dutch mariners

15. Permanent colonies in North America • France: Nova Scotia (1604), Quebec (1608) • England: • Jamestown (1607), • Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630) • Netherlands: New Amsterdam (1623) • English take it in 1664, rename it New York Before New York: National Geographic Sept. 2009

16. Colonial Government in N. America • Jamestown • Exceptionally difficult conditions • Starvation rampant, cannibalism occasionally practiced • Only 60 of 500 inhabitants survive winter of 1609-10 • French, English private merchants invest heavily in expansion of colonies • Greater levels of self-government than Spanish and Portuguese colonies

17. Jamestown A painting of the English settlement at Jamestown in the early seventeenth century illustrates the precarious relations between European settlers and indigenous peoples. Note the heavy palisades and numerous cannons deployed within the fort, as well as the imposing figure of the native chief Powhatan depicted out-side the settlement's walls. 

18. European empires and colonies in Americas about 1700

19. European moralists often denounced tobacco as a noxious weed, and they associated its use with vices such as drunkenness, gambling, and prostitution. Nevertheless, its popularity surged in Europe, and later in Africa and Asia as well, after its introduction from the Americas. 

20. An eighteenth-century engraving depicts work on a plantation: Several African slaves prepare flour and bread from manioc (left) while others hang tobacco leaves to dry in a shed (right). A male turkey—a fowl native to the Americas—ignores the bustle and displays his feathers (right foreground).

21. Relations with Indigenous Peoples • North American peoples loosely organized, migratory • Unlike Aztec, Inca empires • European colonists stake out forested land, clear it for agriculture • Increasing number of Europeans arrive seeking ample land: 150,000 from England in 17th century

22. Conflict with Indigenous Peoples • Colonists displace indigenous peoples, trespass on hunting grounds • English settlers negotiate treaties, poorly understood by natives • No knowledge of English law • Military conflict frequent • Natives mounted raids • Settlers retaliate by destroying their fields and villages • Natives also devastated by epidemic disease • By 1800, indigenous people numbered 600,000 • Between 1600-1800, approx. one million English, French, German, Dutch, Irish, and Scottish migrants cross the Atlantic and sought to displace natives

23. North American Populations

24. Social Structures in the Americas • Comparison of the following: • Latin America • Spain and Portugal • North America • England, France

25. The Formation of Multicultural Societies • European, African migrants primarily men • Relationships with native women formed • Mestizo (mixed) societies formed • People of Spanish and native parentage • Descendants of Spaniards and African slaves (“mulattoes”) • Descendants of African slaves and natives (“zambos”) • Less pronounced in Peru • PICTURE: Indigenous Zapotec painter Miguel Mateo Maldonado y Cabrera (1695–1768) created this domestic portrait of a multicultural family in the viceroyalty of New Spain, today's Mexico. A Spanish man gazes at his Mexican Indian wife and their mestizo daughter. 

26. The Social Hierarchy in Latin America • Race-based hierarchy • Peninsulares • migrants from Iberian peninsula • Criollos(creoles) • children of migrants • Mestizos, mulattoes, zambos, other combinations of parentage • Bottom: slaves, indians, conquered peoples Slaves, indians, and conquered people

27. Social Structure: North America • Higher ratio of French, English female migrants than in South America • Settlers marry w/in their own group • English colonies: higher social stigma attached to relationships with natives, African slaves • Fuels racism • Did borrow cultural elements: • moccasins, deerskin clothes • African food crops and techniques: rice • Fur traders have relationships with North American native women • Children: métis (mixed in French)

28. Women in Spanish/Portuguese America • Privileged men-Patriarchal • Society ignored gender if you are a slave • Both male/female slaves receive harsh punishment • Ex. Flogging • Race and class was powerful in shaping women’s life • European descent used elite position to advantage • Still under strict patriarchal control • Most disadvantaged: black, mulatta, zamba slaves

29. Mining and Agriculture in Spanish Empire • Silver Mining • Agriculture and craft production on the Hacienda

30. Mining in the Spanish Empire • Gold not extensive in Spanish holdings, but silver relatively plentiful • Northern Mexico and Bolivia • Extensive employment of natives • Adapt the Incan mitasystem to recruit workers

31. Mining operations at Potosí in South America gave rise to a large settlement that housed miners and others who supplied food, made charcoal, fashioned tools, and supported the enterprise. In this illustration from the mid-1580s, llamas laden with silver ore descend the mountain (background) while laborers work in the foreground to crush the ore and extract pure silver from it. 

32. Potosi 1545-1600’s • Becomes the largest city in Americas during 16th century • Large-scale silver mining • Mita-system of labor • Natives required to send 1/7th of male pop. To work for 4 months • Low wages, harsh conditions • Haul heavy baskets of silver ore up steep mine shafts • Work w/ toxic mercury to separate silver from its ore • Death rates high • Population of 150,000 by 1600 Potosi in 1553; 13,240 ‘ above sea level

33. Global Significance of Silver • Traveled throughout the world and stimulated global trade • Major resource of income for Spanish crown • Helped Spanish kings gain wealth and power as well as Europe • 1/5 of all silver went to the crown • Silver taken from Mexico to Philippines in Manila Galleons and then on to Asian markets Silver “went round the world and made the world go round”

34. Manila galleon route and the lands of Oceania, 1500-1800

35. The Hacienda • Apart from mining, farming, stock raising, and craft production was also the principal occupations • Hacienda: The estate that produced foodstuffs, crafts for towns, cities • Produced for local markets in mining districts, towns • Large estates produce products of European origin • Wheat, grapes, meat from pigs, cattle

36. Labor Systems: Encomienda System • Encomienda system of utilizing native labor force • Originally used during Reconquista: used defeated Moorish population • Rampant abuses 1520-1540 • Overworked them, demanded tribute • Gradually replaced by debt patronage • Spanish landowners advance loans to natives to buy seeds, tools etc. • Peasants repay loans with cheap labor • So low wages they couldn’t repay

37. Resistance to Spanish Rule • Rebellion • Ex. Peru 1780 TúpacAmaru Rebellion • Named after the last Incan ruler who was beheaded by Spanish in 1572 • 60,000 natives revolt • Held out for 2 years until Spanish suppress it and kill thousands TupacAmaruShakur originally named Lesane Parish Crooks changed it to TupacAmaru meaning “Shining Serpent”

38. Indigenous Peoples Turn to King for Protection Against Colonists • Felipe GuamanPoma de Ayala depicted himself several times in his letter of complaint. Here, kneeling, he presents a copy of his work to the king of Spain. In fact, GuamanPoma never traveled to Spain, and his letter never reached the king. Nevertheless, GuamanPoma's illustrations offer remarkable images of early colonial Peru.  • He wrote passionately about abuses

39. Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil • Empire dependent on the Sugar Trade • Different labor recruitment: African slaves

40. The Sugar Mill: The “Engenho” • Portuguese word referring to the mill • Most complex business enterprises in the Americas • Came to include the complex of land, labor, bldgs, animals, capital etc. all related to production of sugar • Dependant on heavy labor and specialized skills on the process • Process • Sugarcane to molasses, or refined to sugar for export • Low profit margins, but privileged status for Portuguese planters and owners Old sugarcane press in Brazil

41. Slavery in Brazil • Unlike Spanish system of forced native labor, Portuguese rely on imported African slaves • Natives continually evaded Portuguese force • Working conditions poor: 5-10% die annually • If a slave lived for 5-6 years, the investment doubled and they could buy another slave • Approximately one human life per ton of sugar

42. Fur Trade and Settlers in N.America • Found convenient entrance through Hudson Strait and Hudson Bay • See royal agents, adventurers, businessmen, and settlers connect parts of N. American interior by forts and trading posts

43. Fur Trading in North America • Indigenous peoples trade pelts for wool blankets, iron pots, firearms, alcohol • Effects • Beaver population declines rapidly • Beaver hunts cause frequent incursions into neighboring territories, conflicts • European settler-cultivators also displacing natives from traditional lands • Initially dependent on native assistance, as European grains did not grow well in many areas

44. Development of Cash Crops • Products developed for European markets • Tobacco- “the herb panacea”, “divine tobacco” • By 1638 exporting 3 million pounds • Rice • Indigo • Cotton • Increases demand for imported slave labor • European indentured servants, 4-7 year terms • Chronically unemployed, orphans, political prisoners and criminals who wanted new life • Continues on smaller scale until early 20th c. • Some become prominent figures, others only marginal employment, others die of disease or overwork

45. Export of Tobacco from Virginia

46. Slavery in North America • African slaves in Virginia from 1610 • Increasingly replace European indentured laborers, late 17th-early 18th centuries • Less prominent in north due to weak nature of cash-crop industry • Slave trading still important part of economy • Also, products made through slave labor • Rum, based on sugar from plantations

47. Christianity and Native Religions • Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit missionaries from 16th century campaigned to Christianize natives • Establish schools and taught nobles Christian doctrine, literacy • Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún important • Preserved volumes of info about the language, customs, beliefs, literature and history of Mexico before conquest • Due to conquest and plague, many natives in Spanish America concluded that their gods had abandoned them, converted to Catholicism • Yet often retained elements of pagan religion in Christian worship • Revered saints with qualities like their gods Bernandino de Sahagun

48. The Virgin of Guadalupe • Legend where Virgin Mary appeared before the devout peasant, Juan Diego on a hill near Mexico City in 1531 • Site became popular local shrine that attracted pilgrims from all Mexico • She gained reputation for performing miracles on behalf of those that visited her • She came to symbolize a distinctly Mexican faith and promise of salvation • Powerful symbol for Mexican nationalism Famed Mexican painter Miguel Cabrera crafted this eighteenth-century depiction of the Virgin of Guadalupe. Recognized as the greatest painter in New Spain, he featured in this work one of Mexico's most powerful religious icons

49. French and English Missions in N. America • Less effective than Spanish missions • Spaniards ruled native populations more directly • Migration patterns of North American natives made it more difficult to conduct Missions • English colonists little interest in converting natives

50. Australia and the Larger World • Broadly similar experiences to American natives • Portuguese mariners long in the region, but Dutch sailors make first recorded sighting of Australia in 1606 • VOC surveys territory, conclude that it is of little value • Limited contact with indigenous peoples • Nomadic, fishing and foraging societies • British Captain James Cook lands at Botany Bay, 1770 • Convicts shipped to Australia, outnumber free settlers until 1830