Main Idea

2. Early India Main Idea Early civilization arose in the Indus River Valley, flourished, and then mysteriously died out. Later India’s Vedic civilization developed a culture based on old and new beliefs.

3. India’s Geography Indus River flows across northwest edge of Indian subcontinent—large landmass, part of a continent • Home of one of ancient world’s great river valley civilizations • Indian subcontinent includes three major geographic zones • Far north: Himalaya, Hindu Kush mountain systems, separating India from rest of Asia • South: Deccan Plateau, high plateau receiving less rain than other parts of subcontinent • Between mountains, plateau are Northern Plains, where society first developed in India

4. Fertile Region Monsoon Winds • Flood deposits from Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra rivers enrich soil of Northern Plains, make it very fertile • Heavy rains also add to fertility of plains • Much of rain brought to India by seasonal winds, monsoons • Summer, monsoon winds from southwest bring warm air, heavy rains from Indian Ocean; most of annual rainfall at this time • Winter, northeast monsoons blow cool, dry air from Central Asia, drier months Floods and Annual Rainfall

5. Monsoon Rains Devastating Effects • Monsoon rains flooded rivers; rivers deposited fertile silt in which farmers could grow crops • With abundance of rainfall came threat of devastation • Monsoon rains too heavy— crops, homes, lives could be lost • Monsoon rains too late, did not last long enough—people could not grow crops; famine became danger Water Critical Factor The people of India’s first civilizations depended upon the monsoons to bring the water that their crops needed.

6. First Civilization Cities, Settlements Indus Society • Farm communities gave rise to India’s first civilization • Developed in valley of Indus River • Began 2500 BC, when people first developed writing system • 1920s,remains of two large cities first ruins found • Harappa • MohenjoDaro • Civilization called Harappan • Other cities, towns since uncovered • Settlements well planned, carefully laid out • Streets ran in grid pattern; major avenues twice as wide as minor streets Indus Valley Civilization People have lived in the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years. At first people lived as hunter-gatherers, but slowly people began to settle down in farming communities.

7. Life in Towns and Cities • Water came from community wells, smaller wells in courtyards of homes • Public drainage systems carried away wastewater • Walled, elevated citadel—fortress—enclosed buildings like granaries, warehouses • Homes, workshops, shrines built outside citadel • Uniformity suggests central authority in power • Economy • Economy likely based on agriculture, trade • Most probably farmed, herded livestock • In cities, many specialized in crafts like pottery, metalwork, jewelry • Indus traded goods with people nearby, distant civilizations • Traders from Indus Valley brought goods to locations as distant as Central Asia, Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia

8. Society • Few Details • Archaeologists, historians not able to learn many details about Indus society • Had writing system, but historians not able to read it • Some say Indus civilization single society, rather than collection of city-states • Similarities • People shared common tool designs, standard set of weights, measures • Suggest single authority in control • Civilization thrived from about 2500 BC to 2000 BC, then began to decline • Decline • No one knows what led to decline, or if single cause • Environmental damage suspected; flooding, disappearance of Sarasvati river • Invasion, disease may also have helped end civilization

9. Origin of Aryans Archaeological Evidence • Historians not sure when Aryans arrived, where they came from • Some assume they moved from area between Caspian, Black seas • Others argue Aryans developed in northern India, did not move into area • Little archaeological evidence remains to document early Aryan period in India • Most comes from sacred writings called the Vedas • Include many details about Aryan history, society The Vedic Period Sometime after 2000 BC, a new people took control of India. Historians often refer to this group as the Aryans, from a Sanskrit word meaning “noble.” Eventually the Aryans ruled over most of India, except for the far south. This period in Indian history is often called the Vedic period.

10. Social Structure Varnas • According to oldest of the Vedas, the Rigveda, Vedic society divided into four social classes, varnas • Each played particular role in society • People of four varnas created from body of single being • Part of body from which each varna created tied to its duties • Brahmins came from mouth, source of speech, wisdom; were priests • Kshatriyas: warriors, rulers • Vaisyas: common people, farmers • Sudras: servants Vedic Society • According to the Vedas, people settled in villages smaller than cities of Indus Valley • Later groups of villages banded together under regional leaders known as rajas • Raja primarily war leader responsible for protecting people; received payments of food, money in return

12. Social Hierarchy Castes • Social hierarchy developed, some castes had more privileges than others • Not everyone belonged to a caste • Untouchables had no protection of caste law, could perform only jobs that other castes did not • Over centuries, four varnas of Vedic period divided into hundreds of smaller castes • Membership in caste determined what jobs one could hold, whom one could marry Jobs and Privileges

13. Vedic Religion • Vedic Religion • Vedas consist mostly of hymns in praise • We know much about Vedic religion as result • Prayer • People prayed to many aspects of single eternal spirit • One aspect was Indra, who ruled over heaven • Fire Sacrifices • People worshipped gods through fire sacrifices, chanting sacred hymns • Priests offered food, drink by placing on roaring fire • Complex • Rituals grew more complex • Priests said order in universe maintained only through rituals • Brahmin varna gained more influence in society