Classroom Assessment A Practical Guide for Educators by Craig A. Mertler

1. Classroom AssessmentA Practical Guide for Educatorsby Craig A. Mertler Chapter 1 Assessment in Elementary and Secondary Classrooms

2. Introduction • Day-to-day work of teachers is multifaceted. • No responsibility is more important than assessing student performance. • Teachers must be able to communicate academic and social performance and progress to a variety of audiences (including students, parents, administrators, the general public, etc.). • Assessments and evaluative judgments must be accurate in order to prevent communication of misinformation to audiences.

3. Some Basic Definitions • Assessment system: All systematic methods and procedures used to obtain information about students; basis for decisions. • Evaluation: Use of assessment information to make judgments. • Measure: Process involving a structured situation where specific characteristics are sampled; results in a numerical or narrative score (also known as assessment method). • Test: Formal set of questions or tasks that address particular cognitive capabilities learned in specific subject areas.

4. Some Basic Definitions Administration of tests and use of other assessment methods result in the accumulation of assessment results, which provide information for evaluation.

5. Formal vs. Informal Assessment • Formal Assessment Methods • planned in advance of their administration • lack spontaneity • typically occur at the end of instruction • students are aware of these methods • examples include chapter tests, final exams, graded homework, etc. • Informal Assessment Methods • more spontaneous; less obvious • typically occur during instruction • examples include teacher observations and questions

6. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Assessment • Quantitative Assessment Methods • yield numerical scores • major types include teacher-constructed tests, standardized tests, checklists, and rating scales • Qualitative Assessment Methods • yield verbal descriptions of characteristics • main types include teacher observations, anecdotal records, and informal questions

7. Formative vs. Summative Evaluation • Formative Evaluation • decision making that occurs during instruction for purposes of making adjustments to instruction • more of an evaluation of one’s own teaching rather than of students’ work • may be based on formal or informal methods • Summative Evaluation • occurs at the end of instruction (e.g., end of chapter, end of unit, end of semester) • typically used for administrative decisions (e.g., assigning grades, promoting/retaining students) • based solely on formal assessment methods

8. Standardized vs. Nonstandardized Assessment • Standardized Assessment Methods • administered, scored, and interpreted in identical fashion for all examinees • purpose is to allow educators to compare students from different schools, states, etc. • examples include SAT, GRE, ITBS, CAT, PRAXIS • Nonstandardized Assessment Methods • typically made by teachers for classroom use • purpose is to determine extent to which subject matter is being taught and learned

9. Norm-Referenced vs. Criterion-Referenced Assessment • Norm-Referenced Assessment Methods • show where an individual student’s performance lies in relation to other students • standardized tests are usually norm-referenced • results are quantitative • student performance is compared to norm group • Criterion-Referenced Assessment Methods • compare student performance to preestablished criteria or objectives • results are quantitative, qualitative, or both • also known as mastery, objectives-referenced, or competency tests

10. Traditional vs. Alternative Assessment • Traditional Assessment Methods • procedures such as pencil-and-paper tests and quizzes • only one correct response to each test item • easily and efficiently assess many students simultaneously • encourage memorization of facts, etc. • Alternative Assessment Methods • more appropriate for hands-on, experiential learning • include authentic assessment (involve real application of skills beyond instructional context)

11. Objective vs. Subjective Assessment • Objective Assessment Methods • “objective” refers to method of scoring (no judgments) • contain only one correct answer • examples: multiple-choice, true-false, matching items • also known as structured-response, selected-response, teacher-supplied items • Subjective Assessment Methods • scoring involves teachers’ subjective judgments • several possible correct responses or single correct response with several ways to arrive at that answer • examples: short-answer and essay items • also known as open-ended, constructed-response, supply-type items

12. Purposes of Assessment • Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Instruction • assessment can provide information to guide instructional decisions • prior to instruction—planning for instruction and subsequent assessment • during instruction—determining effectiveness of instruction and whether reinstruction is needed • following instruction—determining if revisions are necessary for next period, next class meeting, or next year

13. Purposes of Assessment • Diagnosing Student Difficulties • assessment prior to instruction in order to determine what students know and can do • important in helping teachers plan for instruction • Placing Students • assessment for purposes of grouping students based on ability, organizing students for group work, sequencing of coursework, etc.

14. Purposes of Assessment • Providing Feedback (Formative) • assessment can provide feedback to students regarding their academic progress • important to provide this type of feedback in an ongoing manner • Grading and Evaluating Learning (Summative) • formal assessments of learning following the completion of instruction • typically used to communicate results to students, parents, and others

15. Ethical Issues Related to Assessment • Teacher Responsibilities in the Classroom • ensuring that students are properly motivated to do their best on any type of assessment method, that all types of assessment methods are administered fairly, and results are interpreted appropriately • Motivating Students • should not try to trick students on classroom assessments • provide encouragement • familiarize students with assessment procedures (i.e., develop students’ “testwiseness”skills)

16. Ethical Issues Related to Assessment • Test Administration • establishes a positive environment within the assessment situation • discourages cheating • Interpretation of Test Results • tests do not result in measures of the entire person • interpretation should be limited to only those skills measured by a particular test • avoids overgeneralizations

17. Ethical Standards • The Standards for Teacher Competence in the Educational Assessment of Students (1990) • The Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education (1988) • The Family and Education Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) of 1974