1. Natural Language Processing Lecture Notes 1

2. Today • Administration and Syllabus • course web page • Introduction

3. Natural Language Processing • What is it? • What goes into getting computers to perform useful and interesting tasks involving human languages. • Secondarily: insights that such computational work give us into human languages and human processing of language.

4. Natural Language Processing • Foundations are in computer science (AI, theory, algorithms,…); linguistics; mathematics; logic and statistics; and psychology

5. Why Should You Care? • Two trends • An enormous amount of knowledge is now available in machine readable form as natural language text • Conversational agents are becoming an important form of human-computer communication

6. Knowledge of Language • Words (words and their composition) • Syntax (structure of sentences) • Semantics (explicit meaning of sentence) • Discourse and pragmatics (implicit and contextual meaning)

7. Small Applications • Line breakers • Hyphenators • Spelling correctors • Optical Character Recognition software • Grammar and style checkers

8. Big Applications • Question answering • Conversational agents • Text summarization • Machine translation

9. Note NLP, as in many areas of AI: • We’re often dealing with ill-defined problems • We don’t often come up with perfect solutions/algorithms • We can’t let either of those facts get in our way

10. Course Material • We’ll be intermingling discussions of: • Linguistic topics • Syntax and meaning representations • Computational techniques • Context-free grammars • Applications • Translation and QA systems

11. Chapter 1 • Knowledge of language • Ambiguity • Models and algorithms • History

12. Knowledge of Language • Phonetics and phonology: speech sounds, their production, and the rule systems that govern their use • Morphology: words and their composition from more basic units • Cat, cats (inflectional morphology) • Child, children • Friend, friendly (derivational morphology)

13. Knowledge of Language • Syntax: the structuring of words into legal larger phrases and sentences

14. Semantics • The meaning of words and phrases • Lexical semantics: the study of the meanings of words • Compositional semantics: how to combine word meanings • Word-sense disambiguation • River bank vs. financial bank

15. Pragmatics • Indirect speech acts: • Do you have a stapler? • Presupposition: • Have you stopped beating your wife? • Deixis and point of view: • Zoe was angry at Joe. Where was he? • Implicature: -Yes, there are 3 flights to Boston. In fact, there are 4. * The general was assassinated. In fact, he isn’t dead.

16. Discourse • Utterance interpretation in the context of the text or dialog • Sue took the trip to New York. She had a great time there. • Sue/she; • New York/there; • took/had (time)

17. Ambiguity • Almost all of the non-trivial tasks performed by NLP systems are ambiguity resolution tasks • There is ambiguity at all levels of language

18. Ambiguity • I saw the woman with the telescope • Syntactically ambiguous: • I saw (NP the woman with the telescope) • I saw (NP the woman) (PP with the telescope)

19. “I made her duck” • I cooked waterfowl for her • I cooked waterfowl belonging to her • I create the duck she owns • I caused her to lower her head quickly… • Part of speech tagging: is “duck” a noun or verb? • Parsing syntactic structure: is “her” part of the “duck” NP? • Word-sense disambiguation (lexical semantics): does “make” mean create, lower head, or cook?

20. Dealing with Ambiguity • Two approaches: • Tightly coupled interaction among processing levels; knowledge from other levels can help decide among choices at ambiguous levels. • Pipeline processing • Most NLP systems are probabilistic: they make the most likely choices

21. Models and Algorithms • Models (as we are using the term here): • Formalisms to represent linguistic knowledge • Algorithms: • Used to manipulate the representations and produce the desired behavior • choosing among possibilities and combining pieces

22. Models • State Machines: finite state automata, finite state transducers • Formal rule systems: context free grammars • Logical formalisms: first-order predicate calculus; higher-order logics • Models of uncertainty: Bayesian probability theory

23. Algorithms • Many of the algorithms that we’ll study will turn out to be transducers; algorithms that take one kind of structure as input and output another.

24. Algorithms • In particular.. • State-space search • To manage the problem of making choices during processing when we lack the information needed to make the right choice • Dynamic programming • To avoid having to redo work during the course of a state-space search • Machine Learning (classifiers, EM, etc)

25. State Space Search • States represent pairings of partially processed inputs with partially constructed answers • E.g. sentence + partial parse tree • Goal is to arrive at the right/best structure after having processed all the input. • E.g. the best parse tree spanning the sentence • As with most interesting AI problems the spaces are too large and the criteria for “bestness” are difficult to encode (so heuristics, probabilities)

26. Dynamic Programming • Don’t do the same work over and over. • Avoid this by building and making use of solutions to sub-problems that must be invariant across all parts of the space.