1. Security UnderKey-Dependent Input Shai Halevi Hugo Krawczyk IBM

2. Encrypting Your Own Key • Ciphertext = Encs(s) • More generally, Encs(some-function-of-s) • Why would you want to do this? • Seems like an abuse of the cryptosystem • How can you expect security? • How can you prove it?

3. Why Look at This? • Accidents Happen • Poorly-designed key-management can result in “self-encryption” (more on that later) • Comes up when comparing “axiomatic security” and “complexity-based security” • Useful in anonymous-credential systems • Used as deterrence against key-delegation

4. Prior Work Key-Dependent Message • Black, Rogaway & Shrimpton 2002 • Encs(M) = <r, H(s|r)+M> is “KDM-secure”when H is a random oracle • Camenisch & Lysyanskaya 2001 • “Circular-secure” PKE in the random-oracle model, use for anonymous-credentials • Laud & Corin 2003, Adao et al. 2005 • Relations to “axiomatic security” • Concurrent work of Hofheinz, Unruh

5. KDI is bad enough for randomized encryption, even worse when you don’t have randomness This Work • Extend Black et al., also to deterministic constructions (e.g. PRFs, PRPs,…) • Renamed KDM to KDI (Input instead of Msg) • Many negative examples • Even in the random-oracle/ideal cipher models • Some rather surprising • Some constructions • Even in the standard model

6. The IEEE 1619 Story IEEE 1619: Standard Architecture for Encrypted Shared Storage Media

7. Sector-level encryption • Must be length-preserving (=>deterministic) • Use “tweakable ciphers” [LRW02] • y = Ps(t,x), x = Ps-1(t,y) • For each s,t, Ps(t,*) permutation • Adversary with oracles Ps(*,*), Ps-1(*,*) cannot distinguish from a collection of random & independent permutations • Tweak is used as location on disk

8. The LRW Construction x h(t) • Ps,h(t,x) = Es(xh(t))h(t) • Es is sPRP, h is “xor universal” • Proven secure in [LRW02] • Specifically: Ps,a(t,x) = Es(x(at))(at) • at is multiplication in GF(2n) • In early 2006, IEEE 1619 working group was set to standardize this mode Es y

9. a(t+1) z =z + a(t+1) =z + at What’s Wrong with LRW? • Fails when “encrypting its own key” • Extract a = y1-y2 a 0 at a(t+1) Es Es y1 y2

10. Is This a Problem in Practice? • Lively argument in the 1619 mailing list • “No one in their right mind will ever do that” • Turns out that “encrypting own key” can happen in Windows Vista™ • A driver does sector-level encryption • On hibernate, driver itself stored to disk • So a different mode (based on Rogaway’s XEX) was chosen for the standard

11. Why XEX? • About as efficient as LRW • The attack from before does not apply • How do we know that there isn’t some other attack in this vein? • Can we define/prove security?

12. Defining KDI Security

13. q1 g Answer(q1) Answer(g(s)) q2 Answer(q2) Adversary Specifies a Function of Key Slight variations for different security notions s …

14. Inherent Impossibility 1 • Assume an invertible Ps • Adversary sets g(s)=Ps-1(s) • Ps(g(s)) = Ps(Ps-1(s)) = s • Not every function can be tolerated • A scheme is C-KDI-secure if it is secure when adversary only uses functions from C

15. Inherent impossibility 2 A-la-[BK03] • Assume a deterministic fs • Adversary sets gi,1(s)=s+2i, gi,2(s)=s2i • fs(gi,1(s))=fs(gi,2(s)) “iff” i’th bit of s is 0 • Cannot tolerate C that is “too rich” • Even if the individual functions in C are simple • Even makes sense to require C-KDI-security only with respect to |C|=1

16. Results for Randomized Encryption

17. A Surprising Negative Example • Textbook scheme: Encs(m) = <r, fs(r)m> • Black et al. show that when fs(x) = H(s|x), this is KDI secure in the ROM • So let’s use fs(x) = SHA1-Compression(IV=s, M=x) • Surely this should be safe…

18. The Davis-Meyer Construction • fs(x) = Ex(s)s, where E is a block cipher • Most contemporary compression functions are built this way (s=IV, x=message-block) • This fs “should be a PRF” • The HMAC proof of security assumes that it is • Can be proven PRF when E is an ideal-cipher • We get Encs(m) = <r, Er(s)sm>

19. KDI Failure • With respect to g(s)=s • Encs(s) = <r, Er(s)ss> = <r, Er(s)> • Given <r,y>, adversary recovers s = Er-1(y) • Attack works even when E is ideal cipher

20. A Construction that Works • Encs(m)=<r, fs(r)fs(m)> • f is invertible, Decs(r,y)=fs-1(fs(r)y) • If f is C-KDI-secure then so is Enc • Proof is straightforward • Which is better <r, AESs(r)  m>or <r, AESs(r)  AESs(m)> ? • Both “work” if AES is replaced with ideal cipher • AES “needs only be KDI-secure” for the latter

21. Results for PRFs Wanted: a PRF which is C-KDI-secure for every |C |=1

22. Negative Results • A secure PRF need not be KDI-secure even with respect to g(s)=s • Fs(x) = s if x=s fs(x) otherwise • For every Fs there is g such that Fs is not {g}-KDI-secure • For example, g(s)=Fs(0) • Adversary can check if Fs(Fs(0))=Fs(g(s))

23. Positive Results in Standard Model • A PRF with “salt”, fsr • “Salt” r is public randomness, s is secret seed • For every g(s), fsr is {g}-KDI-secure whp over r • Implies a {g}-KDI-secure PRF for each g • Via a non-constructive argument • A constructive argument when g is “well spread” • say, g(s) has min entropy ≥|s|/2 • For each g, adifferent (g-dependent) salted invertible {g}-KDI-secure PRF

24. A “Salted” PRF The point: extr(s) is almost uniform even given H(g(s)) • Fsr(x) = fextr(s)(H(x)) • fs’ is a regular PRF • extr(*) is a strong randomness extractor • H is length-decreasing (say, from n to n/2 bits) • Can be collision-resistant hashing • Or even something based on universal hashing • Note: Fsr is not invertible • Can’t be used for randomized encryption as above

25. Proof of Security Prove that the adversary cannot distinguish this from the “real PRF” • The “Random” world: • f is a random function, s,r are random strings • Adversary sees r, f(g(s)), f(q1), f(q2), … • Hybrid 1: • f is a random function, s,r are random strings • Adversary sees r, f(H(g(s))), f(H(q1)),f(H(q2)),… • Same as Random if no H-collisions

26. Proof (cont.) • Hybrid 2: • s’, s, r are random strings • Adversary sees r, fs’(Compress(g(s))), fs’(Compress(q1)), fs’(Compress(q2)), … • s’ is independent of s, r • Adversary cannot distinguish Hybrid 1from Hybrid 2 since fs’ is a PRF

27. Proof (cont.) • The “Real” world: • s, r are random strings, s’=extr(s) • Adversary sees r, fs’(H(g(s))),fs’(H(q1)),fs’(H(q2)),… • Adversary’s view uniquely determined by<r, s’, H(g(s))> • Distribution over <r, s’, H(g(s))> statistically close in Hybrid 2, Real QED

28. An Invertible KDI-secure PRF? • ??? • For each g, a different (g-dependent) invertible {g}-KDI-secure PRF • Frs(x) = fextr(s)(0) if x=g(s) fextr(s)(1|x) otherwise • Using fs(*) instead of fextr(s)(*) does not work • May be surprising

29. Other Results • Things are easier in the ideal-cipher model • Fs(x) = Ps(x) is a KDI-secure PRF wrt any function g that is independent of P • Es(t,x) = PP(t)(x) is KDI-secure tweakable cipher wrt any function g that is independent of P • Other construction as well • A KDI-secure-PRF wrt g(s)=s in standard model, using the Blum-Micali PRG • Similar to unpublished construction of Barak s

30. The Moral • ??? • KDI-security is a fragile property • Well-designed systems should not abuse their cryptography in this way • When KDI security is needed, some schemes may work, others do not • Random-oracle/ideal-cipher analysis may not always tell us which is which

31. Some Open Problems • KDI-secure encryption in standard model • “Circular-secure” encryption • Invertible KDI-secure PRFs