Software Engineering

1. Software Engineering Metrics James Gain (jgain@cs.uct.ac.za) http://people.cs.uct.ac.za/~jgain/courses/SoftEng/

2. Objectives • To motivate the need for software metrics • To differentiate between process, project and product metrics • To compare and contrast Lines-Of-Code (LOC) and Function Point (FP) methods of metric normalization • To introduce product and project metrics suitable for: • OO Planning • OO Analysis and Design • OO Testing • Quality

3. What are Metrics? • Attempt to objectively quantify Software Engineering • Can be direct (immediately measureable) or indirect (not immediately quantifiable) • Measure (Raw Data): • Quantitative indication of the extent, amount, dimension, or size of some SE attribute • A single data point • Metrics: • The degree to which a system, component, or process possesses a given attribute. • Synthesizes several data points • Indicators: • A combination of metrics that provides insight into the software process, project or product.

4. Do We Need Metrics? Against: Collecting metrics is too hard, too time consuming and too political. They can be used against individuals and don’t actually prove anything For: In order to characterize, evaluate, predict and improve the process and product a metric baseline is essential. “Anything that you need to quantify can be measured in some way that is superior to not measuring it at all” Tom Gilb

5. Purpose of Metrics • Process: • Measure and correct the software process applied by your organization over several projects • Project: • Create reliable estimates of time and cost • Track and control the project schedule • Product: • Monitor and adjust aspects of the software as it is created • But Metrics are like dynamite. Powerful if used carefully but dangerous if used to threaten or attack individuals • “Not everything that can be counted counts, and not everything that counts can be counted.” - Einstein

6. Process Metrics • Focus on quality achieved as a consequence of a repeatable or managed process. • Strategic and Long Term. • Statistical Software Process Improvement (SSPI). Error Categorization and Analysis: • All errors and defects are categorized by origin • The cost to correct each error and defect is recorded • The number of errors and defects in each category is computed • Data is analyzed to find categories that result in the highest cost to the organization • Plans are developed to modify the process

7. Project Metrics • Used by a project manager and software team to adapt project work flow and technical activities. • Tactical and Short Term. • Purpose: • Minimize the development schedule by making the necessary adjustments to avoid delays and mitigate problems. • Assess product quality on an ongoing basis. • Metrics: • Effort or time per SE task • Errors uncovered per review hour • Scheduled vs. actual milestone dates • Number of changes and their characteristics • Distribution of effort on SE tasks

8. Product Metrics • Measure aspects of the product being engineered • Fed into the project to provide time, cost and resource metrics • Combined across several projects to produce process metrics. • Types of Product Metrics: • Analysis and Design: Do the product specifications exhibit the properties of good analysis and design? • Testability: How easily can the product be tested? How thouroughly has the product been tested? • Quality. Is there evidence of quality in the final product and also as it is created?

9. Process Metrics: Normalization • How does an organization combine metrics that come from different individuals or projects? • Metrics will depend on the size and complexity of the project • Normalization: • compensate for complexity aspects of a particular product • Divide metrics by a Normalization Factor • Approaches: • LOC (Lines of Code): size oriented • FP (Function Points): function oriented • Person Months: time and effort oriented

10. Typical Normalized Metrics • Size-Oriented: • errors per KLOC (thousand lines of code), defects per KLOC, R per LOC, page of documentation per KLOC, errors / person-month, LOC per person-month, R / page of documentation • Function-Oriented: • errors per FP, defects per FP, R per FP, pages of documentation per FP, FP per person-month

11. Why Opt for FP Measures? • For: • Independent of programming language. Some programming languages are more compact, e.g. C++ vs. Assembler • Use readily countable characteristics of the “information domain” of the problem • Does not “penalize” inventive implementations that require fewer LOC than others • Makes it easier to accommodate reuse and object-oriented approaches • Against: • Original FP approach good for typical Information Systems applications (interaction complexity). Variants (Extended FP and 3D FP) more suitable for real-time and scientific software • Can suffer from a lack of objectivity and consistency. An independent third party may not reproduce the same FP

12. Computing Function Points Analyze information domain of the application and develop counts Establish count for input domain and system interfaces Assign level of complexity (simple, average, complex) or weight to each count Weight each count by assessing complexity Assess the influence of global factors that affect the application Grade significance of external factors, F_i, such as reuse, concurrency, OS, ... FP = SUM(count x weight) x C where complexity multiplier C = (0.65+0.01 x N) degree of influence N = SUM(F_i) Compute function points

13. Analyzing the Information Domain

14. Taking Complexity into Account • Complexity Adjustment Values (F_i) are rated on a scale of 0 (not important) to 5 (very important): • Does the system require reliable backup and recovery? • Are data communications required? • Are there distributed processing functions? • Is performance critical? • System to be run in an existing, heavily utilized environment? • Does the system require on-line data entry? • On-line entry requires input over multiple screens or operations? • Are the master files updated on-line? • Are the inputs, outputs, files, or inquiries complex? • Is the internal processing complex? • Is the code designed to be reusable? • Are conversion and instillation included in the design? • Multiple installations in different organizations? • Is the application designed to facilitate change and ease-of-use?

15. Exercise: Function Points • Compute the function point value for a project with the following information domain characteristics: • Number of user inputs: 32 • Number of user outputs: 60 • Number of user enquiries: 24 • Number of files: 8 • Number of external interfaces: 2 • Assume that weights are average and external complexity adjustment values are not important. • Answer:

16. Example: SafeHome Functionality Test Sensor Password SafeHome System User Sensors Zone Setting Zone Inquiry Messages Sensor Inquiry User Sensor Status Panic Button (De)activate (De)activate Monitor and Response System Password, Sensors, etc. Alarm Alert System Config Data

17. Example: SafeHome FP Calc weighting factor count simple avg. complex measurement parameter 9 3 number of user inputs X 3 4 6 = 8 2 number of user outputs X 4 5 7 = number of user inquiries 2 6 X 3 4 6 = 1 7 number of files X 7 10 15 = 22 4 number of ext.interfaces X 5 7 10 = 52 count-total 1.11 complexity multiplier 58 function points

18. Exercise: Function Points • Compute the function point total for your project. Hint: The complexity adjustment values should be low ( ) • Some appropriate complexity factors are (each scores 0-5): • Is performance critical? • Does the system require on-line data entry? • On-line entry requires input over multiple screens or operations? • Are the inputs, outputs, files, or inquiries complex? • Is the internal processing complex? • Is the code designed to be reusable? • Is the application designed to facilitate change and ease-of-use?

19. OO Metrics: Distinguishing Characteristics • The following characteristics require that special OO metrics be developed: • Encapsulation—the packaging of data and processing. Conventional paradigms organize programs around data or function, OO does both. Concentrate on classes rather than functions. • Information hiding—the way in which information about operational details is hidden by a secure interface. An information hiding metric will provide an indication of quality. • Inheritance—the manner in which the responsibilities of one class are propagated to another. A pivotal indication of complexity. • Abstraction—the mechanism that allows a design to focus on essential details. Metrics need to measure a class at different levels of abstraction and from different viewpoints. • Conclusion: the class is the fundamental unit of measurement.

20. OO Project Metrics • Number of Scenario Scripts (Use Cases): • Number of use-cases is directly proportional the number of classes needed to meet requirements • A strong indicator of program size. • Number of Key Classes (Class Diagram): • A key class focuses directly on the problem domain • NOT likely to be implemented via reuse • Typically 20-40% of all classes are key, the rest support infrastructure (e.g. GUI, communications, databases) • Number of Subsystems (Package Diagram): • Provides insight into resource allocation, scheduling for parallel development and overall integration effort.

21. OO Analysis and Design Metrics • Related to Analysis and Design Principles • Complexity: • Weighted Methods per Class (WMC): Assume that n methods with cyclomatic complexity are defined for a class C: • Depth of the Inheritance Tree (DIT): The maximum length from a leaf to the root of the tree. Large DIT leads to greater design complexity but promotes reuse • Number of Children (NOC): Total number of children for each class. Large NOC may dilute abstraction and increase testing

22. Further OOA&D Metrics • Coupling: • Coupling between Object Classes (COB): Total number of collaborations listed for each class in CRC cards. Keep COB low because high values complicate modification and testing • Response For a Class (RFC): Set of methods potentially executed in response to a message received by a class. High RFC implies test and design complexity • Cohesion: • Lack of Cohesion in Methods (LCOM): Number of methods in a class that access one or more of the same attributes. High LCOM means tightly coupled methods

23. OO Testability Metrics • Encapsulation: • lack of cohesion in methods (LCOM): The higher the value of LCOM, the more states must be tested to ensure that methods do not generate side effects. • Percent Public and Protected (PAP): Percentage of attributes that are public. Public attributes can be inherited and accessed externally. High PAP means more side effects. • Public Access to Data members (PAD): Number of classes that access another classes attributes. Violates encapsulation. • Inheritance: • Number of Root Classes (NRC): Count of distinct class hierarchies. Must all be tested separately. • Fan In (FIN): The number of superclasses associated with a class. FIN > 1 indicates multiple inheritance. Must be avoided. • Number of Children (NOC) and Depth of Inheritance Tree (DIT): Superclasses need to be retested for each subclass. • Success of Testing: • Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE). Relationship between pre-release errors (E) and post-release defects (D) • Ideal is DRE = 1

24. Quality Metrics • Measures conformance to explicit requirements, following specified standards, satisfying of implicit requirements • Software quality can be difficult to measure and is often highly subjective. • Correctness: • The degree to which a program operates according to specification. • Metric = Defects per FP. • Maintainability: • The degree to which a program is amenable to change. • Metric = Mean Time to Change. Average time taken to analyze, design, implement and distribute a change.

25. Quality Metrics: Further Measures • Integrity: • The degree to which a program is impervious to outside attack. • Summed over all types of security attacks, i, where t = threat (probability that an attack of type i will occur within a given time) and s = security (probability that an attack of type i will be repelled) • Usability: • The degree to which a program is easy to use. • Metric = (1) the skill required to learn the system, (2) the time required to become moderately proficient, (3) the net increase in productivity, (4) assessment of the users attitude to the system. • Covered in HCI course

26. P R O D U C T R E V I S I O N P R O D U C T R E V I S I O N P R O D U C T T R A N S I T I O N P R O D U C T T R A N S I T I O N P R O D U C T O P E R A T I O N P R O D U C T O P E R A T I O N Quality Metrics: McCall’s Approach Maintainability Portability Flexibility Reusability Testability Interoperability Correctness Usability Efficiency Reliability Integrity McCall’s Triangle of Quality

27. Quality Metrics: Deriving McCall’s Quality Metrics • Assess a set of quality factors on a scale of 0 (low) to 10 (high) • Each of McCall’s Quality Metrics is a weighted sum of different quality factors • Weighting is determined by product requirements • Example: • Correctness = Completeness + Consistency + Traceability) • Completeness is the degree to which full implementation of required function has been achieved • Consistency is the use of uniform design and documentation techniques • Traceability is the ability to trace program components back to analysis • This technique depends on good objective evaluators because quality factor scores can be subjective.