Water

1. Water

2. Phases of water ICE IS LESS DENSE THAN LIQUID WATER: Normally when we think of a solid substance, it is more dense than the liquid form because the molecules get closer together as they cool. As water freezes because the bonds change and expand taking up more space. As water changes to a gas the molecules become more active and become less dense The freezing point of water is 0°C and 32°F. The boiling point of water is 100°C and 212°F. In the process of frost wedging, water can freeze the in the cracks of rocks, expanding and breaking the rock. This is a form of physically weathering.

3. Polarity Water molecules are composed of one oxygen and two hydrogen molecules. The oxygen has a negative charge and the hydrogen has a positive charge. Therefore water has polarity, slightly positive and negative charges. This allows water to easily bond with many substances, making it the universal solvent. Water is considered to be a POLAR molecule because it has partial + and – charges **Each H is slightly positive……..each O is slightly negative

4. pH Scale The ph or alkalinity of a substance is determined by the amount of hydrogen ions present. An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions. there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxyl ions in the solution. This kind of solution is acidic. A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions. When a base is dissolved in water, the balance between hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions shifts the opposite way. Because the base "soaks up" hydrogen ions, the result is a solution with more hydroxyl ions than hydrogen ions. This kind of solution is alkaline. Drinkable water should be relatively neutral, 6.5-6.8 ph.

5. *Due to this polarity water is highly attracted to other materials and other water molecules: -COHESION: water sticking to other water molecules -ADHESION: water sticking to other materials **The bond formed between a H and an O in 2 different water molecules is a HYDROGEN BOND + + - - + + **A complete salt molecule is NaCl, which is separated into Na+ and Cl- when it is dissolved in water.

6. Chemistry of water SURFACE TENSION: The “skin” formed at the top of any body of water due to water molecules pulling on one another. **Another property caused by polarity. Viscosity Solution Surface Tension **When fluids are cooled, they become more viscous (the resist flow more) **When they are heated, they become less viscous (easier for them to flow) UNIVERSAL SOLVENT: Water has a unique ability to dissolve a huge number of other substances. Water can dissolve nearly any substance that has polarity (positive and/or negative charge) **When fluids are cooled, they become more viscous (the resist flow more) **When they are heated, they become less viscous (easier for them to flow) -Solute: substance that is dissolved. -Solvent: substance that does the dissolving (usually water)

7. The Water Cycle Water molecules move continuously through the water cycle following many pathways: the evaporate from a body of water or surface of the earth, condense into cloud droplets, falls as precipitation back to earth’s surface and infiltrate the ground. Runoff is water flowing along the earth’s surface through the force of gravity. Unfortunately this runoff can carry pesticides, trash, fertilizers, manure and car leakage into the closest watershed then eventually the ocean.

8. Water systems Wetlands watershed • A wetland is any land area that is covered in water for part of the year. • Wetlands include bogs, marshes, and swamps. • They have specialized soil that is adapted for specialized plants and extremely absorbent. • Wetlands are extremely important as storm buffers, natural water filters as well as replenish our water table. • wetlands play a vital role in filtering sediment, solid pollutants and bacterial pathogens. • Also wetlands provide a vital habitat for migratory birds and unique amphibians. • The us has currently lost 60% of it’s wetlands. • All of the land area whose water drains into a stream system called a watershed. • Watersheds can be relatively small or extremely large like the Nile or Chesapeake watersheds. • A Divide is a high land area that separates one watershed from another.

9. eutrophication Before After Eutrophication occurs when the watershed accumulates high levels of nutrients that stimulate excessive algae growth. These nutrients are commonly runoff from land and agricultural sites (cow manure and pesticides and fertilizers). The two most common elements that are contained in the runoff are nitrates and phosphates. After the algae blankets the body of water, the life underneath dies from lack of sunlight. Then, bacteria comes in to consume the dead organic matter. The bacteria consumes all the oxygen creating a dead zone (an area with so little oxygen that nothing can survive.

10. “Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's needs, but not every man's greed.” -Gandhi

11. Earth’s Population Growth Earth’s population is currently a J-curve, meaning it is growing exponentially. If population grows exponentially, limiting factors such as shortages of food and water will cause population to drop. Then the Earth will exceed the carrying capacity, meaning the earth will no longer have the resources to support the population. If population exceeds the carrying capacity, the number of deaths will increase or births will decrease until the population and the environment are back in balance. More than 7.3 billion people currently inhabit the planet, compared to only 3 billion in 1967. Almost half of the global population is under the age of 25 and their decisions during their reproductive years will determine whether we have 6 billion or 14 billion people by 2100. Over 1 billion people do not have enough food and safe drinking water.

12. Human impacts on freshwater Groundwater pollution Point and non point sources • Aquifers are underground rivers that are pumped for our water usage. • aquifers that are not protected fully by impermeable rock layers, can become contaminated by faulty septic tanks, landfills, farms and waste disposal sites. • Heavy metals from pesticides, coal burning and runoff can also contaminate groundwater. • Fracking has become an extremely common process for removing large amounts of natural gas. however, this process requires water and can contaminate the groundwater to such an extent that water can actually be lit on fire. • Point source pollutants are direct and observable sources that can contaminate our water. • Examples include sewer plants, construction sites, landfills and farms. • Non point source pollutants are indirect, meaning the direct source is unknown. • Examples are runoff form highways and roads, plastic litter, and rainwater runoff from cities.

13. Impacts of agriculture • Approximately ½ of the world’s land has been converted for agriculture. • Methane holds in more heat than co2. methane is released at large rates by cattle (beef) and cows (dairy). • Animal agriculture is responsible for 18% of the total release of greenhouse gases world-wide • The world’s cattle alone consume a quantity of food equal to the caloric needs of 8.7 billion people, while there is only 7.2 billion. (over5billion cattle on earth) • Desertification is the process to which croplands are so heavily farmed that nutrients are leached from the soil leaving the soil like a desert and unable to produce food. • The cattle industry is the leading cause of destruction of the world’s rainforests. • Pesticides that are sprayed on non organic crops have been linked to many diseases with humans as well as impacts on wildlife and freshwater. • 67% of the world’s freshwaters is used for agriculture for growing crops for our consumption, food for livestock consumption and the livestock directly. • Nearly half of all the water used in the United States goes to raising animals for food • The Colorado rivers has not made it to the ocean for years due to the fact that is diverted to Tucson AZ, Las Vegas, LA and 800,000 acres of cropland. Story of DDT DDt was a chemical pesticide used on crops as well as to fight mosquitoes. However, the ddt caused the endangerment of large birds of prey through biomagnification. The high level of toxins caused for thinning of the birds eggs dramatically decreasing the population. After the banning of Ddt, the large birds such as hawks, eagles and falcons quickly recovered.

14. Mercury Ocean pollution Mercury is released into the air by. burning coal and agriculture. The mercury then falls from the air and accumulates in our waterways and oceans. Mercury accumulates in the algae and then is eaten and moves up through the food chain. This is called biomagnification. The most illness impacts the tops of the food chain. 33% of all ocean pollution comes from the air. Plastic Global Warming Dead Zones Plastic trash accumulates in the center of our oceans yet enter he oceans from runoff and storm drains. These products are eaten by wildlife, cause suffocation and cause animals to be entangled and injured. Many animals choke to death, die of starvation or infection from the plastic “flotsam”. The Giant Pacific Garbage Patch is roughly the size of Texas and up to 90 feet deep! Global climate change is dramatically impacting our oceans. The oceans in some regions have increased as much a 6°, this dramatically impacts the life in the oceans. Coral bleaching which is a disease destroying our coral reefs, is caused by global warming. A dead zone is created when a region or body of water suffers nutrient pollution causing death to the organic matter. Bacteria then eat the organic matter and consume all the oxygen. The dean zone is now a region where there is no oxygen and therefore no life. Coral bleaching

15. Impacts of ocean pollution Carbon sink Carbon sink is the natural process of the oceans absorbing carbon dioxide. However, with excessive co2 the oceans are absorbing too much co2. The excessive co2 is causing the oceans to become acidic. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the acidity of surface ocean waters has increased by about 30 percent. The acidification severely impacts the coral. Oil Spills Over fishing runoff Oil pollution causes starvation in seabirds, hypothermia in sea otters and sea mammals, blindness in cetaceans as well as blood poisoning in large sea mammals such as killer whales. Exxon Valdez in 1989 dumped 11 million off the coast Alaska Oilpollution causes starvation in seabirds, hypothermia in sea otters and sea mammals, blindness in cetaceans as well as blood poisoning in large sea mammals such as killer whales. The BP spill released 14 million gallons and is now the biggest environmental disaster of the US. Ocean overfishing is simply the taking of wildlife from the sea at rates too high for fished species to replace themselves. A study of catch data published in 2006 in the journal Science grimly predicted that if fishing rates continue apace, all the world's fisheries will have collapsed by the year 2048. Every year more than 170 billion pounds of wild fish and shellfish are caught in the oceans. 44% of all pollution runs off from land into the ocean, mostly through storm drains. As our world becomes covered in cement and asphalt, rainwater is carrying all liter and chemicals into the closest river or stream and then eventually into the ocean where the pollutants can settle and become more destructive. Use public car washes! The soaps from washing cars enters the storm drains and contaminates bodies of water.

16. Solid waste Each person in the us generates 4-6 lbs. of trash a day. Our solid waste is stored commonly in landfills. Landfills can process a toxic sludge from the decomposition of waste called leachate which can contaminate water and soil. Only 30% of new jersey residents actually recycle. It is much better for our resources and energy to reuse rather than just recycling. 60% of our daily trash can be recycled or composted. Human impacts on our land mining deforestation development The most common products mined are iron, copper, aluminum, sand, gravel and limestone. Unfortunately these practices can contaminate groundwater, destroy ecosystems, and add pollutants into our air. Underground mining, such as coal, can not only be dangerous but can lead to water pollution such as that seen with acid mine drainage. Clear cutting of land in deforestation causes the topsoil to be lost. This in turn can cause for massive erosion. Besides for cattle, forests are removed for firewood, charcoal, paper and lumber. The common practice for tree removal in poorer nations for the cattle industry is slash and burn where the forest are burned. As population continues to grow, suburban development is growing surrounding our major cities, this is referred to as urban sprawl. 75% of us population lives in urban or suburban areas. Cities are expanding rapidly destroying ecosystems and causing for more runoff after heavy rains.

17. Impacts of coal Coal provides 50% of the electricity for the US releasing mercury into our air which can accumulate in our crops, soil, drinking water and oceans. Coal has high levels of pyrite (fes2) and sulfur. Therefore bodies of water near coal mines are exposed to acid mine drainage. This occurs when the pyrite oxidizes in the air, creates an orange precipitate and turns the water very acidic. Mercury is released into the air by burning coal and is linked to cancer, Parkinson's, autism and more. Mercury poisoning is also becoming a more common problem in humans and wildlife. Burning coal releases sulfur which highly contributes to acid rain. Factories emitting sulfur from burning coal, such as in china, create industrial or sulfurous black smog. Reducing your use of electricity and using cleaner energy reduces all these issues.

18. methane Human Impacts on our Air Methane is released from decomposing organic material, rice patties and cattle. Methane holds in 23 times more heat than CO2 and is a huge contributor to global warming. This gas has increased by 400% in 200 years due to agriculture. smog Ozone depletion Acid rain Photochemical smog is the brown haze created by car exhaust and sunlight.(LA) Sulfurous smog is created by the burning of coal. (China) It can irritate eyes, nose, throat and lungs and is also inhibits plant growth. Particulates can also be released and accumulate in human lungs. Our ozone is being destroyed by chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) released by cleaning agents, broken refrigerants and aerosol cans. The chlorine and fluorine bond to the O3 and break down the ozone in the o2 and chlorides. Ozone layer is continuing to thin causing increased cancer rates yearly. Acid rain is any precipitation be 5.0 ph. Sulfur dioxide (from coal) and nitrous oxide (from cars) attach to the water creating sulfuric and nitrous acid. Acid rain leaches nutrients form plants, destroys structures (leaves, needles and bark) and accumulates in bodies of water.

19. Global Warming and climate change The greenhouse effect is a natural process where co2 and methane trap heat towards the earth’s surface. The increased temperatures on the earth is dramatically changing the weather on earth. Global climate change will continue to worsen impacting our food supply, available drinking water, create more severe weather patterns and severely disrupt ecosystems. The world’s average temperature has gone up 1.4° since 1880, however the arctic has gone up as much as 14°. 11 of the past 12 years are among the dozen warmest since 1850. Global sea level rose about 17 centimeters (6.7 inches) in the last century.

20. Alternative Energy Solar Hydroelectric Geothermal Solar power is renewable and doesn’t cause pollution. The two types are: Passive- using big windows and walls to allow solar energy to heat the home. Active- uses solar panels to convert solar energy to electrical energy. Solar energy is increasing due to the decreased prices in solar panels. A photovoltaic cell is a structure made of two layers of silicon that can convert solar energy into electric energy and this energy is then stored in a battery. Hydroelectric power requires a dam to control the flowing water. Then the flowing water moves a turbine to generate mechanical energy which is then converted to electrical energy. Washington state uses up to 70% of electricity for their power. 20% of the world uses hydroelectric and 10% of the us uses it as well. Oceans can also be used for hydropower by building barriers to capture the wave energy and convert it to electrical energy. Geothermal uses heat from the earth’s magma to heat create steam which will then move a turbine. The mechanical energy is then converted to electrical energy. This source is best along plate boundaries however magma can also escape in small portion around the world to crate this energy. Example- iceland

21. Alternative Energy Wind Power Nuclear power biofuels Humans have used wind power for over 2000 years. The wind turbine converts the mechanical energy from the wind into electrical energy. Nuclear power uses nuclear fission by dividing heavy nuclei such as uranium into two neutrons releasing large amounts of energy. Nuclear power is very clean in that it releases no water or air pollution however it creates extremely toxic nuclear waste. However nuclear accidents such as Chernobyl, pa and now japan have stopped the construction of nuclear power in several countries. Biomass is the process of uses organic matter such as wood, dried crops and soybeans as fuel. Ethanol is a liquid produced from crops such as barley, wheat and corn that can be blended with gasoline. Biodiesel can be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases.

22. How to live a more sustainable life daily • Pre-cycle-think about what you buy, it is the most influential way you impact the environment. Avoid heavy packaging, buy local, buy organic, purchase biodegradable products and wraps And look for products that are mark sustainable! • Reuse- shop at thrift stores and garages sales, buy and use reusable containers such as bags and water bottles, use reusable eating utensils and plates rather than being wasteful with disposable products, use rags for cleaning rather than paper towels and bring your own mug to dunkin donuts or starbucks in the morning! • Save water and energy- don’t leave water running while brushing your teeth, turn off lights, use energy efficient products, unplug things you are not using, use cold water for all your laundry. Only use the air conditioning when truly needed and put on a sweater and turn down the heat in the winter. • Don’t litter and pick it up if you see it! We know it all ends up in our oceans! • Use Green products for cleaning, for your yard and avoid cosmetics/products that are tested on animals. Avoid aerosol cans. • Compost! Turn your food scraps into nutrients for your yard or garden. • No meat Monday! Try to truly reduce your meat, especially red meat, consumption. Also give soy or almond milk a try! • Remember the Earth- Everything you Use, Purchase, and eat has an impact on this planet!!!