Module 2: Aboriginal History and Political Governance

1. Module 2: Aboriginal History and Political Governance

2. Welcome to the learning module on Aboriginal History and Political Governance This learning module takes 45 minutes to complete. There is a quiz at the end of each chapter and a link to handouts and resources at the end of the learning module. You can either have the volume turned on or off to complete this learning module. Select the arrow keys at the bottom of your screen to move forward and move back, or to stop and start the module.

3. Course Learnings By the time you complete this learning module, you will be able to: Part I: Understand the historic context to the current-day issues facing FNIM people in Canada Part II: Identify FNIM Governance and Political Leadership Aboriginal History and Political Governance

4. Insert Pre-Test Quiz SlidePre-Test Quiz (2 Questions)Question 1 Q: Approximately how many First Nations, Inuit and Métis people are there in Canada? Choose one answer by clicking on your selection. • 530,000 • Over 1 million • 776,000

5. Insert Pre-Test Quiz SlideQuestion 2 Q: Louis Riel was a(n) _____________ politician who founded Manitoba. a) First Nations b) Inuit c) Métis A:__________________________________ Let’s get started. Move forward to begin Part I.

6. Part I: Overview Part I of the course provides ahistoric context to the current-day issues facing FNIM people in Canada and the impact to relations with the government and health care industry. You will learn about: An overall overview in Canada An overall overview in Ontario First Nations in Canada, in Ontario Inuit in Canada, in Ontario Métis in Canada, in Ontario

7. Chapter 1: Overall overview in Canada

8. To contextualize the effects of colonization, we will first explore some important Aboriginal historical events. It’s important to note that before the Europeans came to Canada, First Nations and Inuit were the two Aboriginal groups in what is now known as Canada. These First Peoples of Canada have a long history and rich culture. Historical Overview to Present Day

9. Respectful Relationships FNIM people had respectful relationships with one another, with the land, other living beings as well as all the land had to offer (indigenous fruits and vegetables, nuts and natural medicines).

10. First Nations, Inuit and Métis (FNIM) people developed ways and means of relating to each other and to the earth and land. If they didn’t consider what the environment had to offer, they would simply not survive. Both formed For centuries, FNIM have adapted their life and living to regionally specific environments. Relationship With the Earth This relationship with earth is a respectful relationship with all living things. It was based on a very simple understanding of their presence on earth.

11. Government Traditional governments were characterized by the collective stewardship of all lands, waterways, forests and wildlife, full participation and consensus in decision-making and non-coercive leadership. Government policy was usually framed in the context of doing what was best for FNIM people in the long term, but operated in the national interest. The system: • Helped preserve traditional culture and economic lifestyle; there was no poverty. • Provided an environment where language was maintained. • Helped maintain social relationships and structures (e.g. based on hunting and gathering, or an established government system).

12. All Leaders had to agree for a decision to pass that affected the whole community. Decision Making and Responsibility • At the micro level, decisions were based on need, survival and family well-being. • Developments evolved inside the nation, band, community and clan structure. • All members were expected to contribute to the benefit of the larger group. In Aboriginal culture - all people were considered equal - men, women and youth, and contributed equally to the community’s success.

13. HealthTraditional medicine and Aboriginal health and wellness are rooted in a holistic approach. The steps to the Aboriginal Path of Well-being include: 1. Health in balance: giving equal importance to all aspects of health 6. Joint and personal responsibility: health and well-being is the responsibility of the individual, family and community 2. Wellness: both emotional and spiritual 3. Active choice: one’s ownership for health decisions 4. Holistic approach: balance the mind, body, and spirit with community and environment 5. Understand root causes: past and present aspects that impact health

14. During this time, fishermen developed a trade system with FNIM people to exchange European goods such as metal items, beads and firearms for furs. • In the beginning, some of the communities (e.g. Iroquoian and Algonquin) regarded European metal items and glass beads as sources of supernatural power. • Others modified these novel goods so that they conformed more closely to their own cultural preferences. First Contact and Cooperation: 1500s Prior to the 1500s, fishermen from around Europe (e.g. Nordic, Portuguese, Spanish, British, and French) came to North America sporadically for fishing and whaling. Based on stories returning fishermen told of the abundance of resources, in the 1500s Europeans began to establish settlements to fish each summer.

15. The British and French became the dominant two powers. By the early 1600s, the British had begun large scale settlement. France had the colonies of Acadia in the Maritimes and New France in the St. Lawrence Valley. For example, European settlers’ believed that only human beings had a soul while FNIM people believed that other animate beings and inanimate objects had souls. Although there were alliances and some mutual benefits from trade, there were of cultural differences between the groups. Both formed alliances with Aboriginal communities to support the fur trade and military efforts. First Contact and Cooperation: 1500s The Maliseet in the Mi'kmaq and Passamaquoddy in Acadia. The French formed alliances north of the St. Lawrence River with the Huron, Algonquin, Odawa and Montagnais; and Iroquois Confederacy is now known as Haudensaunee The British formed alliances with the Iroquois Confederacy and the First Nations of the Allegheny Mountain range.

16. With Growing Wealth Comes Growing Conflict: 1600s-1700s The fur trade was so profitable that violent clashes began between European and Aboriginal allies, as well as between Aboriginal competitors (i.e. the mid-1600s war between the Iroquois Confederacy associated with the British and the Huron associated with the French, which drove the Huron from their traditional territories). The 1700s saw a drastic shift in power and relations.

17. 1700s

18. Even after France ceded its colonial territories to Britain, the British did not have full control of Canada. British administrators realized that the success of Britain's colonies depended on stable relations with First Nations people. Through this, all land west of designated boundaries became “Aboriginal Territories" The Royal Proclamation of 1763 The Proclamation specified how the colonies were to be run. To help achieve this, King George III issued a Royal Proclamation (The Proclamation) in 1763.

19. The Proclamation established very strict protocols for all dealings with First Nations people. From 1763, the Indian Department became the primary point of contact between Aboriginal communities and the colonies. The Royal Proclamation was the first “public” recognition of First Nations rights to land and title. The Royal Proclamation of 1763 This meant that Aboriginal communities could not purchase land from one another. In addition, only the colonial government could purchase land from an Aboriginal community.

20. Changing Relationship and Treaties: Late 1700s-1800s

21. Less than 50 yearsafter the first land surrenders for settlers: The non-Aboriginal population outnumberedthe Aboriginal population. As such, settlers pressured the colonial government for land held by Aboriginal communities.

22. In this new situation, the economies and belief systems of the two groups were increasingly incompatible. First Nations and Métis people were seen as barriers to productive development. Non-Aboriginal immigrants established permanent settlements; cleared land for agricultural purposes. Changing Relationship They used timber, fish and other resources for personal use and to supply to other markets.

23. Disease brought by new immigrants began to ravage communities as First Nations and Métis people were unequipped to fight ailments they had never faced before. Changing Relationships • This coupled with: • the loss of the land, and • shortage of food • Took its toll and Aboriginal economies declined. To alleviate the threat of starvation and death, the colonial government supplied relief payments.

24. The government had little need for First Nations and Métis people as allies and began to regard them as unproductive and dependent. Children were relocated to schools away from families, in order to adopt this new way of life from an early age. Following this, a new policy designed to help First Nation and Métis people adjust to the new economic and political realities, took hold. Changing Relationship With military threats diminished Its goal was to 'civilize' through educational, economic and social programs delivered primarily by Christian churches and missionaries.

25. Insert pop up exercise box • [Add in a pop-up: This is a non-scoring exercise: Write down one-three ways that the historic changes with the government still impacts FNIM people today (no more than two-three sentences) ]

26. 1857 An Act to "Encourage the Gradual Civilization of the Indian Tribes” was introduced. • It provided the means for Indians "of good character to be declared, for all practical purposes, non-Indian. • As non-Indians, they were invited to join Canadian society, bringing a portion of tribal land with them. • Only one man, Elias Hill, a Mohawk from the Six Nations, is known to have accepted the invitation.

27. The government introduced legislation, “The Act” to give the federal Department of Indian Affairs (The Department) greater authority. The Act consolidated all previous regulations pertaining to First Nations people. Under The Act, The Department could also determine who was an Indian, referred to as Status Indians and how you could lose status. The Indian Act (The Act) of 1876 Certain goods and services and encourage "civilization." Until they could fully integrate into society. It was based on the premise that it was the government’s responsibility to protect the interests of Aboriginal people: Under the Act, the Department would manage Aboriginal land, resources and money. They could also control access to:

28. First Nations people enrolling in post-secondary school were required to surrender their Indian status until the 1940s. Being born out of wedlock to a mother with status and a father without status. Marrying a man who was not a status Indian. Ways First Nations People Could Lose Status Under the Indian Act Being aged 21, with a mother and paternal grandmother without status before marriage. Enfranchisement This gave individuals citizenship, including the right to vote, if they renounced their Indian status.

29. "Instead of implementing the treaties and offering much needed protection to Indian rights the Indian Act subjugated to colonial rule the very people whose rights if was supposed to protect".  (Harold Cardinal)

30. These provisions interfered with the matrilineal cultures of many First Nations. Children were born to the mother's clan and people, and gained their status in the tribe from her family. Often property and hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line. 1880s: The Act was amended to include a new system of governance. Final authority was given to Indian agents (government representatives assigned to each community). Spiritual and religious ceremonies such as the potlatch and sun dance became illegal.

31. Residential Schools In 1883, education focused on residential schools was introduced as a primary vehicle for assimilation. 132 residential schools were established across Canada. 1857-1996: 150,000 + children attended these schools. Through these schools, FNIM children were educated in the same manner as Canadian children, including: • reading, writing, arithmetic and English or French. Changes also included religion, clothing, practices and to lifestyle. Source: First Nations History, Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development

32. During both World Wars, more than 3,000 registered Indians and unrecorded numbers of Inuit, Métis and non-status Indian people volunteered for the Canadian Armed Forces. World Wars I and II • Their contributions were appreciated, and most volunteers found acceptance on the battlefield. • Survivors expected to be treated the same as other war veterans upon their return to Canada. • Instead they were denied many of the benefits awarded to other vets. Land was taken from their reserves and used 'for military purposes' or awarded to other vets. FNIM veterans that are still alive today continue to seek recognition.

33. Rebuilding Relationships: Mid 1900s – PresentIn 1946, a committee of the Senate and the House of Commons reviewed Canada's policies and management of First Nations, Inuit and Metis (FNIM) affairs. This marked one of the first occasions that FNIM leaders and Elders were able to directly address the government instead of working through the Department of Indian Affairs.

34. The committee heard from FNIM leaders, missionaries, school teachers and federal government administrators. They spoke against assimilation, enfranchisement provisions, and the extent the government exercised power. They also recommended establishing a committee to hear problems arising from the fulfilment of treaties. 1946 Review of FNIM Affairs The committee recommended that one-sided and mandatory elements of The Act be revised. The findings brought to light the impact of assimilation policies on the well-being of FNIM people.

35. The Indian Act Amended Again In 1951, The Act was amended to: In the 1960s, the enfranchisement clause was repealed.

36. White Paper 1969: Another step towards trying to rebuild relationships was the federal government's White Paper on Indian policy. The White Paper proposed to abolish: • the Indian Act • the special relationship between First Nations and Inuit people and Canada, and • the Department of Indian Affairs. The government instead offered, what it termed “equality”.

37. FNIM almost unanimously rejected it. One reason: they were not consulted during its creation - and it had major impacts to them. The department is now called :Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada” They also saw this as the end of their existence as distinct people. Based on early legislation from 1763 and the intent of their treaties: In 1973, the government withdrew the White Paper. Response to the White Paper The government began to change its approach and scale back its presence, including removing Indian Agents from communities. The response countering proposals in the Paper was in their document Citizens Plus, commonly known as the Red Paper.

38. 1973: The Department of Indian Affairs announced a policy to settle land claims through negotiation. Leaders maintained that FNIM people were entitled to Canadian citizenship benefits, plus special rights from past government relationships. These include in Northern Quebec, the Northwest Territories, Yukon and British Columbia. Through this policy, Aboriginal rights and title would be transferred by an agreement that guaranteed defined rights and benefits. Since the James Bay ruling, 22 comprehensive claims agreements, or “modern treaties” have been complete. 1970s Saw Continued Change: Land and Claims For example, land title, fishing and trapping rights, financial compensation and other social and economic benefits. Under this agreement, a unique model was created whereby Cree and Inuit managed their own Health Board and School Boards. The first agreement under this new policy was the 1972 James Bay ruling, with the Cree and Inuit of Northern Quebec and James Bay, Ontario.

39. 1980s – Present: Important Steps to Relationship Changes In 1983, in response to Aboriginal communities’ call for greater autonomy, the House of Commons established a committee to investigate Aboriginal self-government. Following its study: The committee stated in its report that this right was inherent to all First Nations and should be entrenched in the Constitution alongside Aboriginal and treaty rights. It would take until 1995 to negotiate arrangements to start making this a reality.

40. For decades, many First Nations members, especially women, criticized this section of the Indian Act as blatant discrimination. Bill C-31: 1985 • By the 1980s, criticism of this aspect of the Act had spread. • Prompted by court challenges regarding the legality of this loss of status for First Nations women, the government consulted with FNIM leaders across the country on how best to amend the Act. In 1985, Bill C-31 was implemented as an amendment to the Indian Act.

41. Removed gender discrimination against women and the links between marriage and status. This restored status to those women who had had status removed through marriage to non-Aboriginal men. Gave individual bands greater control in determining their own membership. Terminated status of those who had acquired Indian status only through marriage, rather than descent. Bill C-31 Ended clause removing status from children at 21, if their mother and paternal grandmother did not have status before marriage. Restored status to those who had had status removed through enfranchisement.

42. The Oka Crisis Sparks Change The need to deal with the long-standing grievances of First Nations became more urgent following the 78 day event in Oka, Quebec that ended on July 11, 1990. The Quebec Provincial Police tried to dismantle a roadblock that had been set up outside Montreal in mid-March by a group from the Mohawk community in Kanesatake. They had erected the roadblock to prevent the town of Oka from expanding a golf course onto sacred Mohawk lands. One police officer was killed during the conflict as armed Mohawk individuals faced off against the Quebec Provincial Police, and then the Canadian Armed Forces. They voluntarily withdrew from their barricade after an agreement was reached between all parties.

43. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) Report In early 1991, the government established the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) shortly after more issues came to light during the Oka Crisis. Their mandate was to propose specific solutions to issues that had long plagued the relationship between FNIM people, the government and Canadian society as a whole. • The RCAP published its final report in 1996 • It included 440 recommendations covering a range of FNIM issues. The report has been widely used to inform public debate and policy making.

44. The government launched the Policy to negotiate arrangements with FNIM groups to make a return to self-government a reality. Arrangements would take many forms based on historical, cultural, political and economic circumstances of each group. This process involved extensive consultations with local, regional and national FNIM leaders. 1995 – The Inherent Right Policy (Policy) Therefore, implementing new self-government agreements would be partnerships between FNIM people and the federal government. It took the position that an inherent right of Aboriginal self-government already existed within the Constitution.

45. 2008 – Apology over Residential Schools June 11, 2008: The federal government offered an historic formal apology to all former students of residential schools and asked their forgiveness for the suffering they experienced and for the impact the schools had on their cultures, heritage and languages. Through, the apology, the government also made clear its commitment to address the legacy of residential schools through continuing policies and other measures it was reviewing.

46. Population in Canada1,400,685 identify themselves as an Aboriginal person in Canada, or 4.3% of the population (as of 2011). 851,560 (60.8%) identify as Registered Indian / Non-Status Indian (First Nations) 37,885 identify as Other Aboriginal 451,795 (32.3%) identify as Métis 59,445 (4.2%) identify as Inuit Source: Statistics Canada, March 2014. http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/nhs-enm/2011/as-sa/99-011-x/99-011-x2011001-eng.cfm

47. Over half (54%) of FNIM people live in urban areas. • About 41% of FNIM people live in Northern Ontario. • Only First Nations people have reserves. • Proportionately more Métis people live in rural areas than do First Nations people or Inuit. • More than one-third of Ontario’s Inuit live in the Champlain region.

48. Mapping the Communities Across the Regions Move forward to begin the quiz for this chapter

49. Insert Quiz slide: Test for Part I, Chapter 1 True or False Q: In 1985, Bill C-31 was implemented and terminated status of those who had acquired Indian status only through marriage, rather than descent. A:  True  False

50. Chapter 2: Overall Overview in Ontario