Successful Management Strategies of Health and Safety (HS) An Overview on Recent Findings

1. Successful Management Strategies of Health and Safety (HS) An Overview on Recent Findings Bernhard Zimolong & Gabriele Elke Ruhr University Bochum, Germany Bernhard.Zimolong@rub.de 1. Human resource systems 2. Leadership 3. Health and Safety Climate 4. Intervention study on management strategies 5. References Zimolong, B., & Elke, G. (2006). Occupational health and safety management. In G. Salvendy (Ed.), Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics (pp. 673-707). New York: Wiley. Bernhard.Zimolong@rub.de

2. General Manager I & C Systems Controlling Systems Work Design Human Resource Systems Production Human Resource Management: Levels and Forms Top Management … Human Resources Middle Management First-line Management Teams CULTURE Interactive Leadership (transactional and transformational) Substitutes for Leadership (Structure and Culture)

3. Human resource management covers all processes serving to reach organization objectives, which aim to control human resources of an organization. Personnel systems cover such activities as personnel planning, recruitment, placement, development, performance appraisal, training, and competency assessment, counseling and guiding of individuals and groups, payment concepts, back-to-work programs and rehabilitation at the workplace. Behavior control by personnel systems has its origins in the operant perspective of role behavior and the attendant ABC framework (antecedents-behavior-consequences; Stajkovic & Luthans, 1997; 2003). Mainly antecedents, i.e. goal setting and training, and consequences, i.e. feedback, incentives, and social recognition, have been studied. Antecedents have mostly been used in combination with positive consequences of some kind (Geller 2001). Financial rewards: The results of the meta-analysis of Stajkovic and Luthans (2003) shows that combined reinforcement effects of money, feedback and social recognition produced the strongest increase of performance of 45% (d = 1,88). The effects of the individual reinforcers on task performance was 23% (d = .68) for money, 17% (d = .51) for social recognition and 10% (d = .29) for feedback. Behavior programs usually combine the outlined methods. The implementation of such programs into practice changed safety behavior successfully on individual and group level. A meta-analysis of Krause, Seymour und Sloa (1999) yielded an accident reduction of 26% after one and 69% after five years due to the introduction of behavior programs. Overviews: Sulzer-Azaroff, Harris and McCann (1994), Komaki, Coombs, Redding & Schepman (2000) Zimolong & Elke (2005) Human resource management

4. Total 686 Interviews 1536 questionnaires Workers’ representative General manager (Betriebsrat) 19 Interviews 55 Interviews Occupational safety Human resources 83 Interviews 40 Interviews 8 questionnaires 17 questionnaires Occupational doctor 20 Interviews Purchase Planning & Design Production manager Maintenance 34 Interviews 47 Interviews 60 Interviews 37 Interviews 8 questionnaires Middle - level manager 108 Interviews 8 questionnaires First-line supervisor 105 Interviews 171 questionnaires Workers Safety officer Hazard assessment 1341 questionnaires 41 Interviews 32 workplaces Study on Human Resource Systems: Sample profile 18 production sites of 16 companies from chemical industry,Zimolong & Elke, 2001 GAMAGS Study

5. LeadershipResponsibility H & S Excellent n = 24 managers Progress n = 23 managers Below Average n = 29 managers Figures in Percent Reward systems* Training system (5 in 5 years) Appraisal systems* Career development Responsibility of teams** **p < .01; *p < .05 Study on the Use of Human Resource Systems (HS) Zimolong & Elke, 2001

6. Practice ratesAppraisal systems (HS) 53 31 29 75 Documented Self-reports 17 40 70 75 Assessmentcorrective actions Monitoring 67 100 All All All 67 100 Excellent Excellent Excellent Documented Self-reports Documented Self-reports 100 100 Below Average Below Average Below Average 65 67 100 Progress Progress Progress 31 57 57 60 20 75 75 Study on the use of controlling systems (Human Resource Systems) Performance appraisal Zimolong & Elke, 2001

7. The results of the predominantly operant perspective of leadership research (Komaki, 1998, Stajkovic & Luthans, 2003) and goal setting research (Locke & Latham 2002) reveals two primary attributes of effective leadership: performance based monitoring and timely communication of consequences. Effective group leaders continually set goals, support and qualify their employees by feedback and trainings and provide social and/or material incentives. Effective supervisors monitor work in progress, particularly through work sampling (i.e. direct observation) and act accordingly Zohar (2002a) and Zohar and Luria (2003) analyzed in their intervention studies direct leadership behavior on different hierarchical levels. Despite the relatively high autonomy of supervisors at work, expectations of their immediate superiors and the upper management and top management very strongly affect their behavior. Participation and involvement are widely seen as important principles (Spector, 1986). Many studies particularly from Scandinavia demonstrated that participative leadership behavior and participative behavior programs entailed credible improvements of safety performance in the team. In a study by Laitinen, Saari and Kuusela (1997) housekeeping and ergonomic workplace design were improved as well as frequency of injuries and absenteeism were reduced by goal setting, performance appraisal, participation of the employees and support of the management. Likewise, Simard and Marchand (1994,1997) examined the importance of cooperative relationship between managers and their teams. O'Dea and Flin (2001) showed a positive relationship between participative leadership and the perceived responsibility for workplace safety. Interactive leadership, participation, involvement

8. Excellent n = 137 Workers Progress n = 174 Workers Below Average n = 165 Workers Study on interactive leadership Zimolong & Stapp, 2001 Monitoring Transactional Leadership*** 4 3,8 Feedback Goal setting 3,6 3,4 3,2 3 Motivation Participation Transformational Leadership*** Leading by Model ***p < .001

9. Influence of hierachical levels, situational contingencies • The upper management controls occupational safety through the influence on structures and processes of the organizations (Zohar, 2003a). Mearns, Whitaker and Flin (2003) identified successful leadership behavior for the upper management. They postulate that for the upper management personal attendance in occupational safety meetings and in walk-abouts, as well as emphasis of occupational safety in the informal and formal communication with managers and the workforce are important practices of safety-oriented leadership. • Zohar and Luria (2003) demonstrated that control of leadership behavior by the upper management led to both an improved safety-specific leadership and to safer behavior of the employees. In addition, the leadership behavior of the upper management affects occupational safety on the shop floor through an improved safety climate (Guldenmund, 2000; Zohar, 2003b). • Leadership depends crucially on the fit between leadership style and the situational contingencies (Fiedler & Chemers, 1982; House, 1996). Leadership styles e.g. a participative or transformational leadership, which are frequently recommended in the literature; do not fit into every organization or anytime. Leadership needs to be flexible because it depends on organizational culture, structures and objectives, which are subjects to constant change. Successful leadership varies depending on organizational conditions. An important contextual factor for the leadership form is according to Zohar (2003a) and Hofmann and Morgeson (2004) primarily the standardization of work processes.

10. HS- Climate and interactive leadership (mediating mechanisms) • A meta-analysis conducted by Wagner and Gooding (1987) examined the effects of participation in the process of decision-making on performance. Authors found only low effect sizes. The advantages of employee participation in decision-making seems to originate more from a cognitive gain than from an increase of commitment (Locke, Alavi & Wagner, 1997). • Several studies indicate that safety culture or safety climate play a crucial role as a mediator between leadership and improved safety performance (Zohar, 2003a; Hoffmann & Morgeson, 2004). Personnel leadership behavior is a significant determinant of safety climate, which in turn affects the accident rates (Hoffmann & Morgeson, 2004; Zohar, 2003a, 2003b). Zohar (2002b) also demonstrated a complete mediation of leadership influence on accident rates by safety climate. • Zimolong & Stapp (2001) demonstrated a complete mediation of leadership influence on health complaints, particularly on back pain complaints by health and safety climate. • Hofmann and Morgeson (1999) examined the effect of relationship quality between leaders and members (LMX, Leader Member Exchange, Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995). Leadership behavior had no direct influence on the number of accidents but was mediated by safety communication and safety commitment in the examined 49 dyads. Morgeson and Gerras (2003) demonstrated that safety climate moderates the relationship between LMX and the extended role definition on group level. High-quality LMX relationships resulted in expanded safety role definitions when there was a positive safety climate. Under less positive safety climate there was no such expansion. Only if a high-quality LMX was coupled with a strong safety climate, the role definition of the soldiers included next to performance also safety obligations.

11. Health and Safety Climate (HS Norms, Values) .628 to . 733 - .342 to -.398 Leadership: participation, goal setting, motivation Health complaints Back pains -.004 to -. 026 -. 024 to -.036 (-.229 to -.289) Mediation of the influence of leadership on health complaints and back pain complaints by HS climate GAMAGS Study Standardized beta coefficients Zimolong & Stapp, 2001

12. Study on HS climate: weak and strong HS norms and frequency of back pain complaintsZimolong & Stapp, 2001 Frequency of Back Pain Complaints Weak Norms Strong Norms Norms p = .000 Age x N p = .072 Age Classes

13. Umwelt und Umwelt und Arbeitssicherheit Arbeitssicherheit Qualitäts- Maschinen- Qualitäts- Maschinen- sicherung sicherung bau bau Intervention study on human resource management in a industry-battery plant Elke & Zimolong, 2006 • Implementation of HRM in two companies (A and B) with 1000 employees each • Start in the two departments A 1 and B 1 with about 1000 employees, Vorstand Sparte A Sparte X Sparte Y Sparte B • Start in department A 2 • 12 months later Controlling Vertrieb Controlling Vertrieb Company A Company B Top Management Standort: X General Manager Personal und Soziales Werksarzt Middle Management Functional Managers Fertigung Logistik Fertigung Logistik DEPARTMENTS First-line Managers A1 A 2 B A 3 B 1 Supervisors A 11 A 12 A 13 A 21 A 22 A 23 A 31 A 32 A 33 A 34 B B B B

14. Intervention Study: Prospective Cohort Design Department Intervention Intervention HRM HMS A 1 X X B1 X A 2X Test Test Test O1 O2O3 O1 O2 O1 O2 Pretest Posttest1Posttest 2 Pretest Posttest1 t 1 t2 t 3

15. Department A 1 n = 70 Workers Department A 2 n = 140Workers Intervention Study: Changes in Departments A1 and A2 HS Knowledge Performance Intention HS Culture (norms) Commitment HS Information % % Change: Pretest - Posttest

16. Department A 1 n = 70 workers Department A 2 n = 140 workers Intervention Study: Changes of Leadership in Departments A1 and A2 Leading by Model Motivation Goal setting Control Feedback % Change: Pretest - Posttest

17. Ill health lost work days (%-Points) 13 Accidents (Frequency) 11 9 7 5 A1 Intervention Study: Development of Absenteeism and Accidents Goal: -2% points Lost work days HRM and capacity explain 24% of the variance of the ill-health lost workday development Goal: -50% Accidents HRM and capacity explain 32 % of the variance of the accident development T2 T3 T4 T6 T1 T5 Start A2

18. Strong need for studies on Substitutes for interactive (personal) leadership (Kerr & Jermier, 1978) Human resource systems, rules, instructions, norms and values (culture, climate) Multi-level analysis: teams, middle and upper management Intervention studies: prospective cohort studies Joint approach to health and safety Conclusion

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