Bioteknologi

1. Bioteknologi

2. Pengertian dan Sejarah Bioteknologi : Teknologi yang menggunakan sistem hayati (proses-proses biologi) untuk mendapatkan barang dan jasa yang berguna bagi kesejahteraan manusia

3. Sejarah Minuman alkohol anggur (pengawetan daging) • Khamir roti • Keju • Yogurt • Susu masam • kecap 1857 – Pasteur menemukan bahwa fermentasi merupakan proses yang dilakukan oleh organisme hidup 1920 – fermentasi aseton, etanol, butanol, gliserin PD II – Penicillium natatum Antibiotik Vitamin, steroid, enzim

4. Tahun Peristiwa 1917 Karl Ereky pertama kali menyatakan istilah bioteknologi 1943 Antibiotik penisilin diproduksi besar-besaran dalam skala industri 1944 Avery, MacLeod dan McCarty membuktikan bahwa DNA merupakan materi genetik. 1953 Watson dan Crick menemukan struktur DNA 1961-1966 Keseluruhan kode genetik dapat diketahui 1970 Isolasi pertama kali enzim endonuklease restriksi 1972 Khorana dan rekan-rekannya dapat mensintesis keseluruhan gen yang mengkode tRNA 1973 Boyer dan Cohen mengembangkan teknologi DNA rekombinan 1975 Kohler dan Milstein mendeskripsikan produksi antibodi monoklonal 1976 Pertama kali dikeluarkan pedoman untuk penelitian dalam bidang DNA rekombinan 1976 Pengembangan teknik untuk mengetahui sekuen DNA 1978 Perusahaan Genentech memproduksi insulin manusia pada sel bakteri Escherichia coli 1980 Badan pengadilan Amerika Serikat menetapkan peraturan dalam kasus Diamond VS Chakrabarty yang melakukan manipulasi mikroorganisme yang dipatenkan. 1981 Pertama kalinya alat otomatis untuk sintesis DNA dijual secara komersial 1981 Pertama kalinya kit diagnostik yang dibuat dari antibodi monoklonal digunakan secara luas di Amerika Serikat 1982 Pertama kalinya vaksin hewan diproduksi menggunakan teknologi DNA rekombinan di Eropa 1983 Ti plasmid yang telah direkayasa digunakan untuk transformasi pada tanaman 1988 Badan paten Amerika Serikat mengumkan bahwa tikus yang direkayasa secara genetis peka terhadap kanker 1988 Metode polymerase chain reaction (PCR) pertama kali dipublikasikan 1990 Amerika Serikat mengijinkan digunakannya sel tubuh manusia untuk kegiatan penelitian mengenai terapi gen.

5. Fermentasi Yeast Fermented Alcohol Ether Amino acid Protein Sugar Lactid Acid Bacteri

6. Pengertian & Sejarah Bioteknologi tradisional : Seleksi bahan, mikrobia yaang digunakan dan modifikasi lingkungan untuk memperoleh produk optimal. Misal : pembuatan tempe, tape, roti, pengomposan sampah Bioteknologi modern : Memanfaatkan ketrampilan manusia dalam melakukan manipulasi makhluk hidup agar dapat digunakan untuk menghasilkan suatu barang yang diinginkan. Misal rekayasa genetik

7. Pengertian & Sejarah Rekayasa genetik : Teknik untuk menghasilkan molekul DNA yang berisi gen baru yang diinginkan atau kombinasi gen-gen baru atau dapat dikatakan sebagai manipulasi organisme Bioteknologi merupakan penerapan prinsip ilmiah dan rekayasa pengolahan bahan oleh agen biologi untuk menyediakan barang dan jasa

8. Hasil-hasil rekayasa genetika tanaman yang digambarkan dalam NationalEnquier, c. 1981.

9. Prospek & Tantangan Pertimbangan Pemanfaatan Hasil Bioteknologi 1) Tinjauan ekologik GMO mengalahkan spesies alami, menggantikan spesias alami, mengurangi keanekargaman hayati. GMO berubah prilaku dibandingkan dengan aslinya. Gen yang disisipkan dapat pindah ke kerabat dekat spesies GMO, termasuk karakteristik gen yang dimaksud. Penambahan gen karakter baru, kemampuan baru, kemampuan hayati baru.

10. Kesetabilan ‘gen asing’ atau dapat berubah dan diekspresikan berbeda oleh organisme yang tertular gen asing – mutasi • Penarikan ‘gen asing’ jika masuk dalam organisme non target • Terganggunya ‘rantai makanan' • Terganggunya organisme non target

11. 2) Tinjauan kesehatan • Gangguan kesehatan karena produk gen asing (dalam waktu panjang) • Bahaya atau tidaknya gen-gen penyerta • Tinjauan sosial dan budaya • Etika, moral • Agama • Perdagangan global

12. Terima kasih

13. The History of Biotechnology http://www.i-s-b.org/wissen/timeline/englisch/

14. 1859 Charles Darwin publishes his book (On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection). According to this book evolution is life´s motor. The interplay of mutation and selection endows living beings with optimized traits in order to survive. These principles are also valid for the so-called 'chemical evolution' of biomolecules and are being used in laboratories for in vitro optimizing of wanted qualities in molecules

15. 1865 Gregor Mendel finds that independent 'factors' are responsible for the heredity of traits from one generation to the next according to a set of (Mendelian) priciples.

16. 1869 Friedrich Miescher discovers an acidic substance in the nucleus of cells which he names 'nuclein'. By elemental analysis he finds 14 % nitrogen, 3 % phosphorus, and 2 % sulfur (from proteins). Since the substance cannot be cleaved by the proteolytic enzyme pepsin Miescher concludes that this substance is not a protein.

17. 1879 Walther Flemming observes the separation of chromosomes during mitosis but fails to fully understand its meaning. He counts 24 pairs of chromosomes, a number which will be corrected to 23 later in 1956 by the Indonesian scientist Joe-Han Tijo.

18. 1900 William Bateson introduces 'genetics' as a scientific discipline Hugo de Vries, Erich Tschermak von Seysenegg and Carl Correns independently rediscover the Mendelian principles Hugo de Vries defines the meaning of 'mutations'

19. 1902 Walter Sutton observes in grasshoppers' cells that chromosomes carry the Mendelian 'factors of heredity', i.e. the genetic information.

20. 1909 Wilhelm Johansen coins the terms 'gene', 'genotype', and 'phenotype' referring to Mendel's 'factors'. Archibald Garrod confirms the hereditary nature of four metabolic diseases. He publishes "Inborn Errors of Metabolism"

21. 1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan's studies in the biology of Drosophila melanogaster confirm that certain traits are inherited sex-specifically. He also proves that some phenotypes result from several genes located on different chromosomes.

22. 1927 Herman Muller finds that energetic radiation causes defects in the chromosomes, i.e. mutations.

23. 1928 Fred Griffith demonstrates that material from killed bacteria of the pathogenic strain Streptococcus pneumoniae S ('smooth') is taken up from living ones of the non-pathogenic strain Streptococcus pneumoniae R ('rough') which are subsequently 'transformed' into the pathogenic S-strain. Pneumococcus pneumoniae

24. 1944 Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod, and Maclyn McCarty find by careful analysis of Griffith' experiments that desoxynucleic acid (DNA) is the carrier of the 'transforming principle'.

25. 1945 Erwin Schrödinger proposes in his famous book 'What is life?' that genes must be 'aperiodic crystals' consisting of a succession of a small number of isomeric elements whose precise sequence constitutes the heredity code. Although these ideas do nothing to identify the responsible molecular structures, they attract many newcomers to the field.

26. 1950 Erwin Chargaff observes the 1:1 ratio of the nucleic bases adenine/thymine and guanine/cytosine. This will be a decisive hint for Watson & Crick to the structure of the DNA molecule.

27. 1952 Alfred Day Hershey's and Martha Chase's studies in bacteriophages prove that only the nucleic acids carry the genetic information; proteins are definitively excluded from playing this role. Joshua Lederberg finds plasmids in bacteria, small rings of extrachromosomal DNA which can be replicated autonomously.

28. 1953 James D. Watson and Francis H. C. Crick elucidate the structure of the DNA molecule. It consists of two strands which are bound by hydrogen bonds bewtween opposite basepairs of adenine-thymine and cytosine-guanine. Their model is based on the results of many colleages, namely Rosalind Franklin who discovered the helical structure and the outward position of the phosphate-sugar backbone.

29. 1955 Frederick Sanger finds a method to sequence proteins. With this he determines the sequence of the amino acids of insulin.

30. 1956.. Arthur Kornberg reports the first in vitro synthesis of a DNA molecule. George Emile Palade locates protein biosynthesis to the ribosomes, the 'factories of the cell'.

31. 1956 Joe Han Tijo and Albert Levan correct the number of the chromosome pairs in human cells to 23. Since the days of Walther Flemming 24 was believed to be the true number. Chromosomen einer menschlichen Zelle protein chains are built at the ribosomes

32. 1959 T. Akiba, T. Koyama, Y. Isshiki, S. Kimua, T. Fukushima, T. Watanabe and T. Fukusawa describe the transfer of multiple resistance to antibiotics by bacterial plasmids. Plasmids turn out to be efficient vectors for trafficking genetic information between bacteria of different strains. bacterial plasmid (arrow)

33. 1960 Francois Jacob and Jaques Monod recognize the function of the messenger RNA (mRNA). They develop the operon model of gene regulation in procaryotes.

34. 1961 Sydney Brenner and Francis Crick claim that every amino acid corresponds to a triplett of nucleotides, called 'codons'. Marshall Nirenberg and Heinrich Mathaei can prove that the codon UUU in mRNA codes for the amino acid phenyl alanine Sydney Brenner Marshall Nirenberg

35. 1962 John Gurdon claims to have reproduced frogs from the epithelium cells of Xenopus laevis. J. B. S. Haldane coins 'cloning' when describing these debated experiments. Xenopus laevis South African clawed frogs John Gurdon

36. 1966 Mainly due to the work of Har Gobind Khorana the 'Genetic Code' is completely known.

37. 1968 Werner Arber discovers enzymes, so-called nucleases, which digest DNA double strands from the ends.

38. 1969 Jonathan Beckwith is the first to isolate a complete gene, in this case a gene from the bacterial sugar metabolism.

39. 1970 Hamilton Smith discovers an enzyme (HindII) which specifically cleaves DNA double strands Har Gobind Khoranasynthesizes a complete gene (that of an alanine t-RNA) in vitro. David Baltimore and Howard Temin discover the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase. It translates RNA sequences to DNA sequences and thus tumbles the age old 'Central Dogma of Genetics' which defined the direction of the flow of the genetic information to start from DNA via RNA to the proteins.

40. 1971 Paul Berg, Peter Loban, and Dale Kaiser find enzymes which attach short single strands to the blunt ends of double stranded DNA. The single strands consist of only one sort of nucleotides. Complementary single strands (sticky ends) allow the coupling of ds DNA fragments; the remaining gaps can be closed by the use of ligases.

41. 1972 Janet Mertz and Ron Davis paste DNA fragments of different origin resulting from specific enzymatic restriction. They close the gaps using ligases and thus produce recombinant DNA.

42. 1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer paste enzymatically restricted DNA fragments into plasmids which have been cleaved by restriction enzymes. The resulting recombinant plasmids can serve as vectors for the transfer of foreign DNA into bacteria. These experiments are generally regarded as the beginning of the era of genetic engineering and modern biotechnology.

43. 1975 The first conference on safety issues of the new technology is held at Asilomar in California. Georges Köhler and Cesar Milstein develop the 'Hybridoma Technology' for the production of monoclonal antibodies. An antibody producing plasma cell (derived from a B lymphocyte) is fused with a tumor cell resulting in an immortal hybridoma cell which (as well as its daughters) continues to produce one kind of antibodies.

44. 1976 Herbert Boyer and Robert Swanson found Genentech the first biotech company.

45. 1977 Walter Gilbert and Frederick Sanger independently develop two different methods for DNA sequencing.

46. 1978 Walter Gilbert discovers that genes of eucaryotic organisms are composed of coding and non-coding parts. The non-coding sequences, named introns, are cut from the mRNA before translation leaving the coding exons as the source of information for protein synthesis.

47. 1979 Thomas Cech and Sydney Altman discover the autocatalytic activity of some RNA molecules to cleave themselves at well defined positions. They coin 'ribozyme' for this type of RNA.

48. 1980 Jozef Schell and Marc van Montagu transfer foreign DNA into plant cells by employing T-plasmids of Agrobacterium tumefaciens as vectors.

49. 1981 The first patent for a genetically modified organism is granted to Ananda Chakrabarty of General Electric. It covers a P. aeruginosa strain which is equipped with genes of certain enzymes in order to metabolize crude oil.

50. 1982 The U.S. Food and Drug Agency (FDA) approves recombinant insulin for marketing.