In the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful

1. In the name of Allah, the most beneficent, the most merciful

2. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND ITS COMPONENTSBY MUHAMMAD AKRAM MANKASH

3. SEQUENCE • Origin of Language • Dialects of English • Language Defined • Characteristics of Language • Language Levels • Speech Vs Writing • Human Language Vs Animal Communication System • Few Terms of English Phonology

4. SEQUENCE • The Limbs of English Language • Phonology & Phonetics • Morphology • Lexicology • Syntax & Grammar • Semantics • British Received Pronunciation (BRP) • Conclusion

6. English Language - Historical Perspective Vikings Normans Early ME 15thC-18th C Later ME 18thC-Till date 5th C – 11th C 11th C – 15th C 15th C – 17th C LWG Dialect Angles Renaissance Saxons Celts & Romans Jutes Danes Frisians French, Italian and Spanish

7. Dialects of English Language • Northumbrian ( North of the Humber ) • Southumbrian (Mercian)) South of the Humber • West Saxon( In the Kingdom of Wessex ) • Kentish ( In Kent ) • Standard Verities of English Language • British English (BrE) • American English (AmE) • Canadian English (CaE) • Australian English (AuE) • African English (AfE) • Asian English (AsE)

8. Dialects of English Language

9. Verities of English Language

10. Language Defined • “Language is an “Organized Noise” used in actual social situations”. • “A system of conventional, spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate” (Encyclopaedia Britannica)

11. Language Defined (Cont’d) • “Language is primarily human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols”. (Edward Sapir,1884-1939) • “Language is in its widest sense means the sum total of such signs of our thoughts and feelings as are capable of external perception and as could be produced and repeated at will”. (A.H. Gardiner, 1935)

12. Language Defined (Cont’d) • “A system of the expression of thought by means of speech sounds”. (Henry Sweet, 1845-1912) • “A system of communication by sound i.e. through the organs of speechand hearing, among human beings of a certain group or community, using vocal symbols possessing arbitrary conventional meanings”. (Mario A. Pei & Frank Ganor, 1954 )

13. Language Defined (Cont’d) • “The innate capacity of native speaker to understand and form grammatical sentences”. (Noam Chomsky, 1950) • Language, a faculty of speech encompassing: • Words, their use and applicability • A widespread prevalent system of words in countries/ professions/cross cultures. • Style and expression, a blend of speech and gestures • Symbols and rules governed under a system that continue to develop and grow capable of meeting the emerging demands of time. • Language is a complex phenomenon and cannot be defined in exact form.

14. Characteristics of Language • A social phenomenon (pertains to human beings only) • A means of communication • Conventional and non-instinctive • Capable of conveying ideas, thoughts and desires through verbal and non-verbal means • Arbitrary, symbolic, systematic and flexible • Unique, creative, open and absorbent, complex and modifiable • Manifests both linguistic and communicative competence

15. Unlimited & infinite Open system Extendable & modifiable Flexible & full of variety Non-instinctive Acquired Conditioned by geography Full of novelty & creativity Cognitive & behavioural Blend of philology & phonology Descriptive & narrative Limited & finite Closed system Un-extendable & un-modifiable inflexible & without variety Instinctive Inherited Not conditioned by geography Bereft of novelty & creativity Only behavioural Devoid of grammaticality Non-Descriptive & non-narrative Human LanguageVs Animal Communication System

16. Composed of sounds Makes use of intonation, pitch, rhythm and tempo Produced with vocal organs Transitory Perceived by ears Addressee in attendance Immediate response/feedback Gestures support message Spontaneous Associative Accepted despite speech errors More effective,moving and result oriented Composed of letters, signs & symbols Makes use of punctuations & graphological devices Produced with the help of tools Relatively permanent Perceived by eyes Addressee absent No Feedback or delayed Message restricted to context Non-Spontaneous Logical Demands form, fashion, pattern & principles of language writing Takes a great effort to cast impression Speech Vs Writing

17. Semiotics (Signs & Symbols) Linguistic Signs Nonlinguistic Signs Verbal Aspects LINGUISTICS Non-Verbal Aspects • Evolutionary • Etymology • Philology • Synchronic / Descriptive • Diachronic / Historical • Sociological • Eco / Green • Ethno • Applied • Structural Arts Gestures Kinesics Proxemics • Music • Paintings • Photography • Ceramics • Architecture • Dance • Sculpture • Body Language • Gestures • Facial Expressions • Variation in Postures • Tactile • Distances

18. Linguistics Structural Linguistics Applied Linguistics Morphology Morphology Morphology Morphology • Semantics • Pragmatics • Forensic Linguistics • Stylistics • Transtology • Lexicography • Phraseology • Discourse Analysis • Spoken • Written • Language/Speech Disorders • Aphasia • Dyslexia • Aphonia • Asemia Lexicology Lexicology Lexicology Lexicology Lexicology Lexicology Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Syntax & Grammar Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonology Phonetics Phonemics Orthography

19. Kinds of Linguistics • Evolutionary Linguistics: Pertains to the origin of a language and its development over the years • Historical (diachronic) Linguistics: The study of exploring the language change with the time sequence. • Sociolinguistics: The study of relation between linguistic variations and social structure. • Psycholinguistics: Deals with the cognitive processes and the representations underlying language use.

20. Kinds of Linguistics • Applied Linguistics: The study of language related issues applied in everyday life, particularly language policies, planning and education. • Biolinguistics: The study of natural as well as human-taught communication systems compared to human language. • Neurolinguistics: The study of the language structures in the human brain that underlie grammar and communication.

21. Brain & Language Language Acquisition Support System (LASS) Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

22. Brain Parts

23. Some of the Areas of the Brain involved in Language Processing Broca's area Wernicke's area Supramarginal gyrus Angular gyrus Primary auditory cortex

25. The Limbs of English Language (Cont’d) • Morphology: The formation and composition of words • Syntax: The connection ,formation and composition of phrases and sentences • Grammar: Rules for standard use of words and how their component parts combine to form sentences. A system for classifying and analyzing elements of language including inflections, functions, rules and relations in the sentence. • Semantics: Deals with the meaning of words and how meaning is inferred from words and concepts. • Pragmatics: How meaning is inferred from context? • Stylistics: A branch in between linguistics and literary criticism which studies the principles and results of the choice and usage of lexical, grammatical, phonetics and other language means with the aim of transmuting ideas and emotion in different communication settings.

26. LEVELS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE • Office Language • Managers Language • Executive Language • Legislative Language • Mass Media Language

27. FEW PHONOLOGICALTERMS • Syllable A word or a part of a word that has only one vowel sound. For example ‘son’ has one syllable and ‘father’ has two syllables. • Closed syllable Syllable that has a consonant at its end • Stress The force exerted to pronounce a particular word or syllable (part of a word) more loudly / distinctly than other words or syllables • Primary Stress The strongest emphasis / more force that you give to a particular syllable while speaking. • Secondary Stress The second strongest emphasis on a part of a word or sentence • Stress Mark (/) A mark that shows which part of a word is pronounced with most emphasis / force.

28. FEW TERMS DEFINED • Elision The none realization of phoneme wherewith omission of a sound during casual conversation occurs causing ambiguity in understanding the meaning. is called. E.g library (pronounced in rapid speech as /laibri/ and schedule pronounced as /∫ədul /. • Intonation The rise and fall of voice while speaking. This also implies the pitch and rhythm during a talk or conversation. • Tone The degree to which the sound of a word or part of a word is high or low • Mute A letter that is not pronounced • Silent A silent letter in a word is that has no sound whether written or spoken.

29. FEW TERMS DEFINED • Accent The characteristic feature of pronunciation of a person or group, especially that belongs to a particular social group or geographical location. • The frictionless continuant /r/ A consonantpronounced with an open approximation of the articulators so that air passes between them without any friction. It is pronounced with the tip of the tongue turned back against the roof of the mouth. (the sound is vowel like) • The Varites of /r/ sound Rolled lingual r Flapped lingual r Fricative lingual ɹ Rolled uvular r Fricative uvular r

30. Division of English Language • RhetoricWhen phoneme /r/ is pronounced. America (AmE), Canada (CaE),Scotland (Scotlandish), Ireland (Irish) • Non-Rhetoric (BRP) When phoneme /r/ is not pronounced except when it is followed by a vowel. E.g. right, room, cry etc. SE Britain, England, Australia, South Africa, New Zealand

31. The Elephant’s Child I keep six honest serving-men. They taught me all I knew, Their names are what, why and when And how and where and who. Rudyard Kipling

32. Why to Learn & TeachEnglish Phonetics & Phonology • Orthographically identical vowels / letters but different sounds e.g minute ,minute, wind, wind {Heteronyms(Homograph)} • Phonologically identical vowels / letters but different spellings e.g sea, see, buffet, bouquet {(Heteronyms(Homophone)} • Free and unpredictable Word Stress placement . • More complex Intonation System. • Only 4.1 % of the world languages have over 17 vowelsounds whereas English has 20 vowel sounds, a complex vowel sound system. (Maddieson-1984) • The English Language Consonant System includes Dental Fricatives, not very common sounds in world’s Languages. (John Wells, 1939- till date) • Silent Alphabet (letters) in the spelling sequence pose difficulty and behave as mischievous specters.

33. Why to Learn & TeachEnglish Phonetics & Phonology • Orthographically identical vowels / letters but different sounds e.g minute ,minute, wind, wind. {Heteronyms(Homograph)} • Phonologically identical vowels / letters but different spellings e.g sea, see, buffet, bouquet. {(Heteronyms(Homophone)} • Free and unpredictable Word Stress Placement . • More complex Intonation System. • Silent Alphabet (letters) in the spelling sequence pose difficulty and behave as mischievous specters. • Retention of phonological character of borrowed words and British Received Pronunciation (BRP) factor.

34. Phonology Phonology deals with the system and pattern of speech sounds in a language. Phonology of a language is the system and pattern of speech sounds

36. Phonology Phonetics The study of the production, transmission and reception of speech sounds Phonemics The study of the sounds and sounds patterns of a specific language “A branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sound with reference to their distribution and patterning” (David Crystal) “A broad study of human speech sounds and their organization into an integrated system of one particular language, where we analyze the restrictions and regulations in the sound system of a particular language. (Peter Roach)

38. Sounds & Spellings • Alphabetic spellings of words are termed as Orthographic Transcription. • The sounds of the words of a language are termed as Phonetic Transcription.

39. Breath, Voice and Whisper • Breath:When the vocal cords are held wide apart (glottis open) and air passes between them causing no vibration, the sound so produced is called Breath. • Voice: When the vocal cords are drawn near together and air is forced between them so that they vibrate, the sound produced is called voice. • Whisper: If the false vocal cords are drawn towards each other leaving only a narrow space for the air to pass between them, the resulting sound is called whisper and is one variety.

40. VOICING A process of articulation in which vocal flaps are set in vibration by the outgoing column of air (egressive air stream), whereby speech organs interference results in production of speech sounds, called voicing.

41. Voiced and Voiceless Sounds • The air stream from the lungs passes through an opening between the vocal cords, the glottis • If the vocal cords are apart and the air stream is not obstructed at the glottis, the sounds produced this way are voiceless(fortis). • If the vocal cords are together and the air stream forces its way through, causing vocal cords to vibrate and the sounds so produced are voiced(lenis).

42. AFRICATES FRICATIVES PLOSIVES FORTIS-LENIS PAIRS OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE Fortis Lenis

43. LENIS FORTIS • Voicing often voiced unvoiced • Length shorter longer • Strength stronger weaker not aspirated may be aspirated • Aspiration not glottalized may be glottalized • Glottalization

44. Segmental Units of Sound • Segmentis any discrete unit that can be identified, either physically or auditory, in the stream of speech. • In phonetics, the smallest perceptible segment is a phone. • In phonology, smallest segment is phonemes

45. Phones vs Phonemes • Slashes/ / or slant bars are used for phonemes • Square brackets [ ] are used for phones. • The vowel “phoneme” in the words bead and bean is represented as /i/ • The “phone” is represented as [i] • Braces: Morphemic elements are placed within braces or curling brackets{ }

46. Phones • The actual sound produced such as a simple vowel or consonant sound. • A speech segment that possesses distinct physical or perceptual properties • A particular occurrence of a speech segment • The basic unit revealed via phonetic speech analysis

47. Allophones Related sounds that are distinct but do not change the meaning of a word when there are interchanged. Example: Tea and Trip The position of the tongue is slightly different which causes a difference in sound detectable by spectrograph. The [t] in TEA and the [t] in TRIP are allophones of the phoneme /t/.

48. Phonemes • The smallest ‘distinctive unit sound’ of a language differentiating one word from another giving different meaning. • Phonemes are not the physical segments themselves, but abstractions of them. • The /t/ sound found in words like tip, stand, writer, and catare examples of phonemes.

49. Minimal Pair • Minimal pairs are pairs of words or phrases which differ in only one phonological element, such as a phone or a phoneme, and have a distinct meaning. • Examples: bit > pit, tip > dip, fan > van • They are used to demonstrate that two phones constitute two separate phonemes in the language. [b, p, t, d, f, v]

50. Vowels and Consonants • Vowel A vowel is any sound with no audible noise produced by constriction in the vocal tract. • Consonant A consonant is a sound with audible noise produced by a constriction, i.e sound made by stopping all or some of the air going out of mouth.