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Hello, Everyone!

Hello, Everyone!. Part One. Review Exercises. Questions. 1. What the difference between sense and reference? 2. What are the major sense relations on the lexical level? Explain. Part Two. New Content. 5.4. Sense Relations Between Sentences. 1. X is synonymous with Y.

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Hello, Everyone!

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  1. Hello, Everyone!

  2. Part One Review Exercises

  3. Questions • 1. What the difference between sense and reference? • 2. What are the major sense relations on the lexical level? Explain.

  4. Part Two New Content

  5. 5.4 Sense Relations Between Sentences

  6. 1. X is synonymous with Y • 1. X: He was a bachelor all his life. • Y: He never married all his life. • 2. X: The boy killed the dog. • Y: The dog was killed by the boy. • Truth Value Table

  7. 2. X is inconsistent with Y • 1. X: John is married. • Y: John is a bachelor. • 2. X: This is my visit to your country. • Y: I have been to your country before. • Truth Value Table

  8. 3.X entails Y (Y is an entailment of X) • If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y. • 1. X: John married a blond heiress. • Y: John married a blond. • 2. X: He has been to Europe. • Y: He has been to Europe. • Truth Value table

  9. 4.X presupposes Y(Y is a prerequisite of X) • 1. X: John’s bike needs repairing. • Y: John has a bike. • 2. X: The queen of England is old. • Y: England has a queen. • Truth Value Table

  10. Presupposition Trigger 1 • Definite description（确定性的描述） • 1) John got married last week. • >>There existed a person called John. • 2) This house was once owned by a rich merchant. • >> There once existed a house. • 3) John’s wife is a school teacher. • >> John has a wife.

  11. Presupposition Trigger 2 • Factive verbs（实情动词） • 1. John realized that he had made a mistake. • >> John made a mistake. • 2. He regretted having started the project. • >> He started the project.

  12. Presupposition Trigger 3 • Implicative verbs（含蓄动词） • 1. I forgot to bring the book. • >> I ought to bring the book. • 2. We happened to meet our neighbor in the cinema. • >> We did not expect to meet our neighbor.

  13. Presupposition Trigger 4 • Change of state verbs（表示状态改变的动词） • 1. He stopped smoking cigars. • >> He had been smoking cigars. • 2. It began to snow at midnight. • >> It did not snow before midnight.

  14. Presupposition Trigger 5 • Iteratives（表示反复的词语） • 1. He promised to come again. • >> He had come before. • 2. I’m visiting China for the third time. • >> I have visited China twice before.

  15. Presupposition Trigger 6 • Verbs of judging（判断性动词） • 1. Peter accused Smith of Forgery. • >> Peter thinks forgery is bad. • 2. Mike praised him for his unselfishness. • >> Mike thinks unselfishness is good.

  16. Presupposition Trigger 7 • Adverbial clauses of time（时间状语从句） • 1. After his father died he stepped into a large fortune. • >> His father died. • 2. They left while the rest of the party were still enjoying themselves. • >> The rest of the party enjoyed themselves.

  17. Presupposition Trigger 8 • Cleft sentences（断裂句） • 1. It was John who danced the last dance with Mary. • >> Someone danced the last dance with Mary. • 2. What I am looking for is my passport. • >> I am looking for something.

  18. Presupposition Trigger 9 • Structures and Expression indicating comparison（表示比较的结构和词语） • 1. Carol is as good a pianist as me. • >> I am a good pianist. • 2. Tom is shorter than Jack. • >> Jack is short.

  19. Presupposition Trigger 10 • Non-restrictive attributive clauses（非限定性定语从句） • 1. Australia, which was settled by the British in the 1770’s, had been inhabited by the aboriginals. • >> Australia was settled by the British in the 1770’s.

  20. Presupposition Trigger 11 • Counterfactual conditionals（与事实相反的条件从句） • 1. If I had not burnt the cake, we would be having it for tea. • >> I burnt the cake. • Wish/pretend/look as if

  21. Presupposition Trigger 12 • Question（问题） • 1. Is there a piano in the room? • >> Either there is or there is not a piano in the room. • 2. Does he speak English or French? • >> He speaks either English or French. • 3. When did he come back last night? • >> He came back sometime last night.

  22. Attention • 前提是说话人的前提，不是句子本身具有的前提。因此，这些所谓的前提语应该被理解为表象、理解为潜在的前提的语言表达、理解为表达说话人的前提的语言手段。（何兆熊 2000：297）

  23. 5. X is a contradiction • When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false. • E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

  24. 6. X is semantically anomalous • When X is semantically anomalous, it is absurd in the sense that it presupposes a contradiction. • E.g. The table has bad intentions.

  25. 5.5 Analysis of meaning

  26. 5.5.1 Componential Analysis

  27. 1. Definition • Componential Analysis is a way proposed the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features or semes（义素）.

  28. 2. Examples (1) man: [+HUMAN +ADULT +MALE] (2) woman:[+ HUMAN +ADULT -MALE] (3) boy: [+ HUMAN -ADULT +MALE] (4) girl: [+ HUMAN -ADULT -MALE]

  29. 3. 语义特征的分类 • 1.自然性语义特征 • [抽象]、[动物]、[活动]、[互相] • 2. 附属性语义特征 • [褒义]、[书面语]、[薄]、[软] • 3. 聚合性语义特征 • [顺序]、[推移]、[循环] • 4. 组合性语义特征 • [领属]、[支配]、[施动]

  30. 4.语义特征的提取方法 • 1. 内省概括法 • 搀、推、赶 [+携带] • 2. 组合分析法 • 山、树、房子 [+空间] • 3. 对立比较法 • 柴、纸、衣服 [+可燃性] • 石头、沙子 [-可燃性] • 4. 变换分析法 • 5. 综合法

  31. 5. Strong Points • Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships that are related in meaning.

  32. Example 1

  33. 附：成分分析与语义关系 同义词：语义成分都相同的词 反义词：一对语义成分相反，其他成分都相同的词 上义词：比另一词多一个语义成分的词 下义词：比另一个词少一个语义成分的词

  34. More Example

  35. More Example

  36. 6. Weak Points • 水可以用H2O来定义，而语义却不能用同样严格的方法借助义素来定义（熊学亮 2003：98），因为： • 1. 我们无法确定什么样的词语可以用作义素。义素用英语大写字母表达，其自身可能被进一步分解。如是，义素和词语互相定义不但是把一种语言译成另一种语言册游戏，还仍然有可能是语义学理论最终回到循环论证的老路上去。

  37. Weak Points • 2. 定义所用的所有义素可能不足一穷尽词语的内涵。如： Bachelor:[+MALE +ADULT –MARRIED] • 然而这种定义仅涉及该类人的一般情况，有时并不能与真实世界中的事实相提并论。如：教皇、和尚、长期与另一男或女同居的男人、一部分离婚者等。因此，有关的语用、社会、文化、意识等方面的因素也应该是词义定义时要考虑的辅助对象。

  38. Weak Points • 3. 分解寓意既不与真实世界挂钩，也不与认识世界挂钩，只不过是有一种符号体系（如元语言）去代替、阐述或说明另一种符号体系（如自然语言）的意义的做法，给人一“两头不着边”的感觉。（熊学亮 2003：98-100）

  39. Weak Points • 4. 总体上说，无论是语义特征本身，还是语义特征分析法，都主观性的。因此，目前作为一种科学方法，语义特征分析法在理论上还没有形成一整套成熟的操作规程。（邵敬敏、周芍 2005）

  40. 5.5.2 Predication Analysis

  41. 1. Sentence Meaning • Q: Is the meaning of a sentence the sum total of the meanings of all its components? • (1)A: The dog bit the man. • B: The man bit the dog. Sentence meaning = grammatical meaning • + • semantic meaning

  42. 2. Grammatical meaning • The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., its grammatical well-formedness. • (1) The dog are chasing the cat. • (2) He gave the book me.

  43. 3. Selection Restriction • Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules call selectional restrictions, i. e., constraints on what lexical items goes with what others. • (1) Green clouds are sleeping furiously. • (2) Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.

  44. 4. Predication Analysis • Predication analysis is a way proposed by G. Leech to analyze the sentence meaning. In this framework, the basic unit is called predication（述谓结构）, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.

  45. 5. Examples (1) Tome smokes. (2) Tom is smoking. (3) Tom has been smoking. (4) Tom, smoke. (5) Does Tom smoke? (6) Tome does not smoke. Predication TOM (SMOKE) argument predicate 述元 谓词

  46. 6. More Examples • (1) Is the baby sleeping? • (2) It is hot. • (3) Kids like apples. • (1) BABY (SLEEP): one-place predication • (2) (BE HOT): no-place predication • (3) KID, APPLE (LIKE): two-place predication

  47. 7. CA+PN • PN • a1 P a2 • +DEFINITE DIRECTION +DEFINITE • +HUMAN +PRIMARY +HUMAN • +ADULT +PAST +ADULT • +MALE -MALE • -PLURAL -PLURAL the man was in front of the woman

  48. 8. 语义形式化的优点 1. 科学、系统地解释语义 • 2. 为人机对话铺平道路 • 3. 准确说明语义关系 • 4. 语义公式可表达出句子歧义

  49. 9.语义形式化的缺点 • 较短的句子似乎较适合使用形式化表达公式，倘若句子一长，句义复杂，这时的语义公式则必然会显得既长又乱，令人不易理解，此时大概只能作为理论家论文上与书本上的“洋码码”，不易推广，更难普及。（王寅 2000：142）

  50. Homework • 1. Review • 2. P82: 2-5 (written) • 3. Prepare Chapter 6: Pragmatics

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