A2 PE COMPARATIVE STUDIES: The USA

1. A2 PE COMPARATIVE STUDIES: The USA

2. The USA: A Cultural Context • European COLONISATION (The process whereby another country is taken over by a more dominant one) occurred from 1492 (Columbus). A version of LACROSSE was played by NATIVE AMERICAN TRIBES. A version of lawless ‘MOB’ games & ‘DOG FIGHTING’ were played by English settlers at Jamestown. These sports belonged to ‘LOW CULTURE’ • Sports of ‘HIGH CULTURE’ such as HORSE RACING, HUNTING, POLO & CRICKET were popular in Eastern States and were brought to the USA by ARISTOCRACY. • The 1776 DECLARATION of INDEPENDENCE established the formation of the USA with 13 STATES. A policy of ISOLATION (The desire of the USA to separate from the UK & Europe, and stand alone from its colonial past) followed. The development of sports reflected this. Society demanded sports which were reflective of a COMPETITIVE, DIVERSE and DYNAMIC culture. Therefore UK sports were MARGINALISED (Rejected by mainstream culture) • The number of STATES increased WESTWARDS until by the mid 19TH C it spanned from the ATLANTIC to the PACIFIC Oceans. The MIGRATING population moving WEST settled into the FRONTIER (A boundary which marked the point of western expansion). FRONTIERISM refers to the TOUGH, RUGGED, INDEPENDENCE of those settlers who faced adversity. Living conditions were HARSH, and they experienced attacks from NATIVE AMERICANS. This FRONTIER SPIRIT shaped the AMERICAN DREAM (the belief that all people are equal in terms of OPPORTUNITY, and that through HARD WORK, anyone regardless of background can SUCCEED. It is the CORNERSTONE of modern USA culture) • 1840-1885: Mass immigration increased population. All were searching WEALTH. This led to a culture of COMPETITION, & a positive WORK ETHIC in the NEW WORLD (a term associated with OPTIMISM and OPPORTUNITY)

3. The USA: A Cultural Context • Sports played in the USA can be placed into one of 3 categories: • ADAPTATIONS: Modifications that have been made to sports already in existence. EG.. American Football is adapted from Rugby • ADOPTIONS: These are sports taken directly from other CULTURES. An example of this is ICE HOCKEY which has origins in Canada • INVENTIONS: an example of an invented game is BASKETBALL. This is particularly well suited to the American Culture • During the 20th C AMERICAN FOOTBALL, BASKETBALL, BASEBALL and ICE HOCKEY were promoted as the ‘BIG 4’ and had the major focus of attention. They were promoted as this for 6 main reasons • They were FAST, ENTERTAINING & INTENSIVE • They fulfilled the CULT OF MANLINESS (this is the ruggedness, hardiness and courage of the FRONTIER SPIRIT. Some Americans were worried this would disappear in modern society. Sport was a way of fulfilling it) • The Frontier Spirit was reproduced in the ‘WIN AT ALL COSTS’ Ethic • A policy of ISOLATIONISM was achieved • These sports provided COMMERCIAL opportunity • By engaging in these sports the NEW SETTLERS became AMERICANISED (the process of becoming an American and accepting the traditions and culture. This is also called ASSIMILATION)

4. The USA: A Cultural Context in Comparison to the UK • The English nation developed a thousand years ago. The USA nation began 236 years ago (1776). It is therefore a YOUNG CULTURE. The UK does not have a FRONTIER. It did follow a policy of AGGRESSIVEEXPANSION overseas (British Empire). This did include America & Australia. At its height the British Empire was the largest in history. ‘The Sun never Set on the Empire’ • The Empire transported British CLASS, TRADITIONS & STRUCTURES across the world. This included SPORTSof HIGH (Real Tennis, Polo, Crickets) & LOW CULTURE (Mob Football). The biggest influence on the development of UK Sports was the PUBLIC SCHOOL system between 1863 & 1888. It occurred in 3 Stages: A) POPULAR RECREATION B) SOCIAL CONTROL C) CULT OF ATHLETICISM • In the USA sports were either ADAPTED, ADOPTED or INVENTED in COLLEGES (University) or WORKING CLASS areas. The IVY LEAGUE universities had the greatest impact on sport and promoted 3 key American VALUES. They also promoted ISOLATIONISM through the sports they chose to play. 1. The ‘CULT OF MANLINESS’ and the ‘FRONTIER SPIRIT’ 2. COMPETITIVENESS 3. LOMBARDIANISM (Win at all Costs) • By contrast the key ETHOS of the UK schools was ENDEAVOUR, SPORTSMANSHIP& AMATEURISM. These Public Schools CODIFIED games such as ASSOCIATION & RUGBY FOOTBALL. These boys then took this into adult life and spread it across the Empire. Some Americans called ‘PROGRESSIVES’ also believed that sport should promote SOCIAL VALUES, and tried to stop professionalism • A CLASS system prevailed in the UK which determined wealth, privilege & SPORTNG OPPORTUNITIES. The GENTLEMAN AMATEUR belonged to the Upper Class who did not play for REWARDS which contradicted the ‘win at all costs’ ethic. WEALTHY Americans did however play High Culture sports such as golf but hired COACHES also to excel. Rugby Union & Cricket had amateur roots. Rugby League and Association Football had working class roots • In the USA an increase in LEISURE TIME, WORKING CLASS IMMIGRATION, IMPROVED TRANSPORT meant more PROFESSIONALISM & SPECTATORISM for BASEBALL, BOXING, HORSE RACING

5. The USA: Geographic & Demographic & Socio-Economic Factors in Comparison to the UK URBANISATION: The growth of Urban areas. The POPULATION of the USA is 300million. Some of its areas are GENUINE WILDERNESS (Uninhabited, inhospitable terrain & no population with wild animals). This has helped stimulate a PASSION for the GREAT OUTDOORS (the natural environment where OUTDOOR ADVENTURE activities take place). The are are major US cities such as NEW YORK & LA. The UK population is 63 million. It has a HIGH POPULATION DENSITY of 200 people per square mile. It has designated AREAS OF NATURAL BEAUTY such as NATIONAL PARKS, but there are no areas of genuine wilderness. TRANSPORT: perceptions of distance differ from the USA to UK because of the scale of the USA. The USA has an advanced network of INTERSTATE HIGHWAYS for car use. INTER STATE AIR TRAVEL is essential and RAIL LINKS are well established. These were laid down in FRONTIER years. This had a major impact on the development of PROFESSIONAL MAJOR LEAGUES in the 1890s. The UK has major motorway networks. Travel to FIXTURES is not inhibited by distance. The introduction of the RAIL network in the 1850s massively developed ORGANISED SPORT, & also RECREATION in the countryside. UK AIR TRAVEL is well developed. CLIMATE & TOPOGRAPHY: The USA has la wide range of climate zones & terrain: DESERT, MOUNTAINOUS, PLAINS, FOREST, TROPICAL, WESTERN MARITIME, ARCTIC. The APPALACHIAN TRAIL (2175 mile) is an example of a wilderness adventure opportunity. The UK is a WESTERN MARITIME climate: WARM SUMMERS and MILD WINTERS. Hostile extremes are RARE. The USA has hosted the WINTER OLYMPICS on 2 occasions. Outdoor adventures can take place though. The longest designated ROUTE is 256 miles (PENNINE WAY). The UK could never host the winter olympics.

6. The USA: Socio-Economic Factors in Comparison to the UK US GOVERNMENT POLICY: it is a REPUBLIC with a strong DEMOCRACY. It has never had a MONARCHY or a HEREDITARY CLASS privilege. There are 3 TIERS to US GOVERNMENT. Its POWER is DECENTRALISED (the power is DISTRIBUTED to the STATE, and not with CENTRAL GOVERNMENT) • FEDERAL (Over arching control of DOMESTIC & FOREIGN POLICY led by the PRESIDENT) • STATE (deals with its own affairs. It has its own CONSTITUTION, GOVT & LAWS with a GOVERNOR) • LOCAL (this concerns particular TOWNS or CITIES) A DECENTRALISED system links very closely with the ECONOMIC system of CAPITALISM & COMMERCIALISM, and links to the VALUES of OPPORTUNITY & FREEDOM. Business & sport is therefore also decentralised. The OLYMPIC GAMES has been funded largely from MULTI NATIONAL commercial businesses in the USA when it has been staged, and not from FEDERAL budgets. Decentralisation also has an impact on the delivery of PHYSICAL EDUCATION as there is no NATIONAL CURRICULUM. There is also not a NATIONAL SPORTS AGENCY or BODY relating to its policy UK GOVERNMENT POLICY: It has a CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY who is the HEAD of STATE with a PRIME MINISTER. Overarching power is with the UK government but DEVOLVED through Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland which has AUTONOMOUS bodies. Local Government has many levels but METROPOLITAN boroughs receive CENTRAL FUNDING. Traditionally sport has been seen as LOW STATUS by UK politicians which has meant LOW PUBLIC FUNDING. This was because of the AMATEUR ETHOS. Recently, UK Sport has become more COMMERCIAL and BUSINESS orientated with politicians realising its VOTE WINNING power. This has led to more public funding and a drive to secure GLOBAL EVENTS such as LONDON 2012. Politicians view these as VOTE WINNING PRESTIGIOUS & FINANCIALLY REWARDING. The DCMS (Dept for Media, Culture & Sport) is the body of government responsible for sport & provides approximately £200m per annum and also decides how LOTTERY GRANTS are distributed to UK SPORT and the 4 SPORTS COUNCILS. Sports ADMINISTRATION is centralised and the bodies are SELF GOVERNING but central government contributes little in the way of POLICY

7. The USA: Commercialism in Comparison to the UK Professional sport in the USA is part of the ENTERTAINMENT business and is seen as a COMMODITY for the public. The USA is driven by the concept of CAPITALISM (a system which allows an individual to accumulate great wealth through INVESTMENT and OWNERSHIP). Capitalism has led to intensive COMMERCIALISM of sport. This is when a commodity is made available to be BOUGHT or SOLD for financial PROFIT. In this case: sport is the commodity. It has existed in American sports since the early 20th C. Capitalism affects all that happens in professional sport, college and high school sport. It also determines opportunities for outdoor education. Most Americans consume as SPECTATORS of sport through TV. The huge focus is on the BIG 4. The SUPER BOWL (NFL) is the biggest TV programme of the year. In the 1960s ROONE ARLEDGE revolutionised coverage by introducing SLOW-MO, ACTION REPLAY and increasing the number of CAMERAS. This encourages huge GROWTH. The AMATEUR ethos and PARTICIPATION focus meant that commercialism in the UK was DELAYED. Capitalism The Opportunity of the American Dream Competitive Ethic ‘Lombardianism’ Freedom Frontier Spirit

8. The USA: Commercialism in Comparison to the UK TV became available to the MASSES in the UK & USA in the 1950s. Britain was enduring a POST WAR AUSTERITY (Hardship). LEISURE TIME and DISPOSABLE INCOME was limited. Admission to sporting events (standing TERRACES) was INEXPENSIVE therefore ATTENDANCES were HUGE. Sporting events in the USA are largely SEATED events which led to SIDESHOW ENTERTAINMENT, and were more FAMILY ORIENTATED. TRAVEL to sport in the UK wasn’t a problem. It was in the USA which meant SPECTATORISM on TV was embraced much more. In the UK the BBC and ITV agreed 10 SPORTING EVENTS which must be covered to the nation by EITHER station. This compared to the TV REVOLUTION in the USA which embraced COMMERCIALISM. CULTURAL BORROWING is when an idea in one culture is copied and embedded into another culture. This occurred in 1988 by BRITISH SATELLITE BROADCASTING (BSkyB) further assisted by the 1990 BROADCASTING ACTwhich allowed EXCLUSIVE RIGHTS to cover the Premier League. This is now the only UK Sport which can COMPETE with the USA’s Big 4. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE is ever present in these sporting industries. Examples of the Golden Triangle & Sport • ITV Digital Collapse 2002 losing £200 million • RELEGATION now has a major financial impact. It is now not part of some sports (RUGBY LEAGUE) • Channel 4 & TWENTY20 • The RFU held out with AMATEURISM until mid 1990s. The PARIS DECLARATION embraced professionalism and commercialism • The BOSMAN RULING 1997 stated that professional footballers could command their own TRANSFERS when they were FREE AGENTS.

9. The USA: Social Determinants Affecting Sport SOCIAL FACTORS = How society is ORGANISED. CULTURAL FACTORS = are TRADITIONS, CUSTOMS & important SPORTS. MAINSTREAM culture is the majority. SEGREGATION and DISCRIMINATION can occur when one GROUP becomes detached from the mainstream • The USA has been DISCRIMINATORY on a SOCIAL level even though it states it is the LAND OF THE FREE. This is MIRRORED in sport. It affects sport in the areas of OPPORTUNITY (the CHANCE to participate) PROVISION (the RESOURCES to participate) & ESTEEM (the CONFIDENCE to participate) • The dominant social group is WASP (WHITE ANGLO-SAXON PROTESTANT). All other groups suffer discrimination on some level. The situation has CHANGED in the last 50 YEARS due to ROLE MODELS, LEGISLATION, & increased opportunity, provision & esteem. It is still evident however. USA Social VALUES: • PLURALISM: ALL Ethnic Minorities are TOLERATED & WELCOMED. USA states it is Pluralist. • THE AMERICAN DREAM: anyone regardless of background can be SUCCESSFUL through HARD WORK • LAND OF OPPORTUNITY: Linked to the DREAM. All people have the OPPORTUNITY for SOCIAL MOBILITY • LOMBARDIANISM: Winning isn’t everything, it is the only thing’ Win at all Costs Ethos! • ASSIMILATION: Identifying yourself and being accepted in a new culture. IMMIGRANTS were encouraged to do this in the USA • HEGEMONY: Culture in which one social group dominates. • The HEGEMONIC GROUP is SMALL but HUGELY INFLUENTIAL & WEALTHY. They are extreme CAPITALISTS and tend to be the MANAGERS of business / Sport. They decide the playing positions of the players • The PLURALIST GROUP is the majority of Americans and tend to be the PLAYERS in sport

10. The USA: Social Determinants Affecting Sport 3 Different Social ETHICS applied to both SPORT & RECREATION: • LOMBARDIAN ETHIC: Winning is the motive for participation in sport • RADICAL ETHIC: Winning is important but the method to attain success is most important • COUNTER CULTURE ETHIC: Winning is not important. Participation is the main motive for playing sport. This is an ANTI COMPETITIVE ETHIC & linked to ECO CULTURE Social Values in the UK: • Working as part of a TEAM has been a VALUE in the UK since the EMPIRE. This was reflected in Public Schools & TEAM GAMES. The USA on the other hand promotes INDIVIDUALISM & SELF SUFFICIENCY • The UK has a sense of FAIR PLAY. The PARTICIPATION ETHIC has traditionally had more importance than WINNING AT ALL COSTS • DISCRIMINATION is also evident in the UK. SPORT FOR ALL is not yet a reality. Social CLASS boundaries have hugely influenced this in the UK but this became less POWERFUL in the late 20th C. The dominant group is WHITE MIDDLE CLASS MALES. These have the most opportunity. Groups who suffer most discrimination are 1) YOUNG 2) ELDERLY 3) DISABLED 4) ETHNIC MINORITIES 5) WOMEN: ‘YEDEW’ • SPORT ENGLAND: The Government Agency for COMMUNITY SPORT attempts to address discrimination

11. The USA: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT OBESITY levels in countries in the developed world are a huge concern. The USA is experiencing major problems. 15% of USA children are CLINICALLY OBESE. 40 MILLION people are obese & 75% of Americans are not reaching basic exercise recommendations. The UK is not as severe but 38% are OVERWEIGHT, 25% are OBESE. The RECOMMENDATION in the UK is that CHILDREN should exercise for 1 HOUR of MODERATE activity every day. PE in the USA: Up until mid 1970s PE lessons were COMPULSORY for all ages. It is now not the case. MILITARY CONSCRITPION was abolished in 1970. After this the enforcement of PE become weaker. By 2000 only ILLINOIS was the only state to enforce it but it has since withdrawn it from being compulsory. This is because the state saves $16 million a year with PE as an optional subject. PE is considered an EXPENSIVE LUXURY. SCHOOL BOARDS is the authority that CONTROLS the school. They have eliminated it from curricula. PE is COMPULSORY in the UK until 16. The greatest decline in PE in the USA comes after primary school. 2001 NO CHILD LEFT BEHIND ACT: Was implemented to RAISE ACADEMIC standards. Subjects which were seen as non academic like PE were withdrawn from this point. The fall out is that 80% of children failed to meet minimum standards in the NATIONAL ‘FITNESSGRAM’ assessments. STRATEGIES to promote PE in the USA: The NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR SPORT & PE (NASPE) believe that PE is the key to healthy lifestyles. They have INVESTED $60 million in PE FOR PROGRESS programme (PEP) with the aim of improving the 1) QUALITY & 2) QUANTITY of PE from KINDERGARTEN to GRADE 12 (UK Y13) TITLE IX: This is LEGISLATION that was passed in 1972 to address GENDER INEQUALITY in all areas of education. School’s will LOSE FUNDING. If they don’t comply. It intended to have a ZERO-SUM outcome. This is the ETHOS that the WINNER TAKES ALL & links directly with LOMBARDIANISM. Positives of the legislation are increased: 1) PARTICIPATION (Now 1:2.5 women participate. It used to be 1:27) 2) SCHOLARSHIPS 3) ELITE performers. CRITICS argue that it has taken away money from men and some male programmes. Additional LEGISLATION ensures that DISABLED can access PE in the form of ADAPTED PE PROGRAMMES. This ensures PROVISION & INCLUSION of the disabled.

12. The UK: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT STRATEGIESto promote PE in the UK: (4) 1) There is a NATIONAL CURRICULUM for PE in the UK which ensures that PE is COMPULSORY until the age of 16 & that schools cover 5 out of 6 activity areas. (GAMES, ATHLETICS, SWIMMING, OUTDOOR EDUCATION, DANCE, GYMNASTICS) 2) The PE SCHOOL SPORT & CLUBS LINKS STRATEGY (PESSCLS) was a Government strategy to PROMOTE PE & SCHOOL SPORT. It was launched in 2002. It changed to PESSYP (PE & SCHOOL SPORT & YOUNG PEOPLE) in 2008. The American PEP is not an equivalent but is supported FEDERALLY. PESSYP received £100 million per year. This strategy had 9 STRANDS: A) SPORTS COLLEGES B) SCHOOL’S SPORTS PARTNERSHIPS (SSPs): Schools work together as CLUSTERS C) PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT – Training for Teachers D) STEP INTO SPORT: Provides a clear FRAMEWORK for 14-19 year olds in sports LEADERSHIP E) CLUBS LINKS: To strengthen LINKS between SCHOOLS & CLUBS F) GIFTED & TALENTED: To help pupils who show ABILITY to develop G) SPORTING PLAYGROUNDS; The development of PRIMARY school playgrounds to promote activity H) SWIMMING: To increase provision in all schools. I) HIGH QUALITY PE & SPORT (PESS): Guidance for schools on how to improve the QUALITY of PE 3) KITEMARKING: A scheme to reward schools who best deliver the PESSYP strategy i) ACTIVEMARK (for PRIMARIES) ii) SPORTSMARK (for SECONDARY SCHOOLS) iii) SPORTS PARTNERSHIPMARK (for achievement across the School Sports Partnership) 4) HEALTHY LIVING SCHEMES: for Provision for DISABLED children

13. The USA: PHYSICAL EDUCATION & SCHOOL SPORT OUTDOOR EDUCATION: This is FORMAL process of teaching educational VALUES & skills in an NATURAL outdoor setting. The FRONTIER & COLONIAL LEGACY has led Americans to have a ‘LOVE OF THE OUTDOORS’. This has become part of the ‘American Dream’ & is HIGH STATUS in the USA. SUMMER CAMPS (or Camp Schools) have increased significantly since MID 20thC. These take place in the summer VACATION & last up to 8 WEEKS. There are over 12000 of which 8000 are RESIDENTIAL. There are 3 CLASSIFICATIONS: 1. STATE SPONSORED Camps; generally for LESS WEALTHY 2. BUSINESS, ETHNIC or RELIGIOUS Camps: 3. COMMERCIAL Camps: Often LAVISH & EXPENSIVE There are different TYPES which include ACADEMIC, & SELF IMPROVEMENT (Weight Loss). Camps have a PATRIOTIC CULTURE with a BUGLE sounding to start the day and the STARS & STRIPES unfurled. There are also CAMP FIRES which reflect PRIDE, a MILITARY ETHOS & the FRONTIER SPIRIT BENEFITS of Summer Camps: ‘PECCS KNIP’ 1. PHYSICAL 2. ENRICHMENT 3. CULTURAL 4. CHALLENGE 5. SELF DISCOVERY 6. KNOWLEDGE 7. NEW SKILLS 8. INDEPENDENCE 9. PROMOTE HABL (Healthy Active Balanced Lifestyle)

14. The USA: HIGH SCHOOL INTER-MURAL SPORT Whilst PE is LOW status INTER MURAL & INTER SCHOOL sport in the USA is STRONG. There is an emphasis on 3 of the BIG 4: BASKETBALL, AMERICAN FOOTBALL & BASEBALL. Despite Title 1X GIRLS tend not to play GRIDIRON but are involved in other sports. FACILITIES are excellent and are often open to the COMMUNITY. It is organised by the STATE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION (SSHAA). This is an ADVISORY board and has branches in each state. These receive no federal funding as schools FINANCE their OWN ATHLETIC programmes through ALUMNI (former students) donations, GATE RECEIPTS & GOLDEN TRIANGLE. The MISSION is that it benefits the whole education process. Schools are CLASSIFIED into 5 CONFERENCES dependent on NUMBER of students. SPECIALIST COACHES lead the teams. They are ACCOUNTABLE to the ATHLETICS DIRECTOR. There is a HIRE & FIRE CULTURE. High school sport is a direct REFLECTION of the PRO LEAGUES. Matches are played in STADIA with MARCHING BANDS, CHEERLEADERS & COMMUNITY support. College (University) SCHOLARSHIPS are offered to the best players so there is a LOMBARDIAN ethos. American culture is reflected. Inter Mural sports have HIGH STATUS because: 1. Centre of EXCELLENCE 2. SCHOLARSHIP incentive to best players 3. STADIA 4. Reflection of the PRO LEAGUES 5. COMMERCIALISM: Golden Triangle 6. HIRE & FIRE 7. Large CROWDS 8. LOMBARDIANISM

15. HIGH SCHOOL INTER-MURAL SPORT in the UK These are MATCHES, COMPETITIONS & LEAGUES. These can be organised by the SSCO (School Sports Coordinator) In 2008: Approximately 400,000 pupils take part. The government invested £2.4B to increase this to 2011. Its ETHOS is in CONTRAST to USA as it has LOW STATUS compared to PE. They lead to NATIONAL finals. An example would be Rugby Union’s DAILY MAIL U’15 & 18 competitions. There are very few CENTRES of EXCELLENCE schools. MILLFIELD is an example where SCHOLARSHIPS are awarded. NGBs select REPRESENTATIVE teams unlike the USA. The GOLDEN TRIANGLE does not exist. PE Teachers are heavily involved but have PERMANENT CONTRACTS The USA: HIGH SCHOOL INTRA-MURAL SPORT INTRAMURAL sports are RECREATIONAL sports which take place in high schools. There are LEAGUES and it does promote PARTICIPATION. It is INFORMAL. Eg: FLAG FOOTBALL. INITIATIVES to promote PE & SCHOOL SPORT in the USA: 1. TITLE 1X 2. STATE HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ASSOCIATION 3. PEP: Physical education for Progress 4. The NATIONAL INTRAMURAL RECREATION & SPORTS ASSOCIATION (NIRSA) organises recreation sport UK Intra Mural Sport: ORGANISED in a SIMILAR way to USA. Mainly in SECONDARY schools through ‘HOUSE’ competition such as SPORTS DAYS. It also has a RECREATION & PARTICIPATION focus but can be COMPETITIVE. Also organised by TEACHERS and played in PE lessons or EXTRA CURRICULAR

16. PARTICIPATION RATES MASS PARTICIPATION in the USA: In sports or PE it is LOW in the USA. Only 19% of adults participate. 60% are UNDER ACTIVE, but 40 million are members of HEALTH CLUBS. MEN are more likely to do this. INDIVIDUAL activities are more POPULAR than TEAM games. The degree of AFFLUENCE also significantly affects this. There has been a GYM & JOGGING CULTURE since the 1950s. YOUNG people take part more but rates DECREASE with AGE. FITNESS levels are a HUGE concern. Whilst trends are POSITIVE in the fitness industry Americans need to be MORE ACTIVE. In 2007 COLORADO was the only STATE with less than 20% OBESITY. MASS PARTICIPATION in the UK: 2007 participation had risen by 400,000 and 75% of people ENGAGE in physical activity (including WALKING). Rates are HIGHER than the USA. INDIVIDUAL activities show HIGHER rates than team. MEN participate more than women, although SWIMMING & FITNESS is more popular with WOMEN. YOUNG people participate MORE. WEALTH is important. If you are wealthy you are more likely PARTICIPATE. 1980: 200 GYMS in the UK 2008: Increased to 6000. This is the AMERICANISATION of GYM CULTURE.

17. STRATEGIES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION RATES - UK: 1. SPORT ENGLAND: Promote mass participation 2. SPORTS MATCH GRANTS: Funded by Sports England for facility development 3. SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS: eg: Women (YEDEW) 4. NGBs: Receive CENTRAL funding to increase participation 5. Local SPORTS FOR ALL Initiatives: For community provision eg: Manchester 5-a-side Leagues 6. NATIONAL CURRICULUM for PE: 7. AMATEUR SPORTS CLUBS: This is a LONG TRADITION in the UK. Clubs have their own FACILITIES & organise teams on the basis of AGE, ABILITY & GENDER. They are mostly DOMINANT on ONE sport but can be more, FUNDED on a VOLUNTARY basis through SUBSCRIPTIONS. They may receive PRIVATE SPONSORSHIP or PUBLIC funding eg: LOTTERY grants STRATEGIES TO INCREASE PARTICIPATION RATES - USA: 1. PRIVATE CLUBS: They exist but tend to be EXCLUSIVE & FUNDED PRIVATELY. Eg: Golf, Tennis, Sailing The tradition of Amateur clubs does NOT exist in the USA. 2. CLUBS are formed through FRIENDSHIPS groups. These teams then create COMPETITIONS. The AMATEUR ATHLETIC UNION (AAU) is a national organisation which coordinates this. Eg: Softball, soccer, baton twirling. This also leads on the NATIONAL YOUTH FITNESS PROG. As part of the PRESIDENT’s CHALLENGE. 3. COMMUNITY PROVISION: MIDNIGHT Basketball Leagues established for ages 17-25 in 1986 playing games between 10pm and 2am and funded by LOCAL government. Players must also attend WORKSHOPS often linked to SOCIAL issues (DRUG abuse) Midnight Basketball Promotional Video – YouTube 4. LITTLE LEAGUES: These are for CHILDREN aged 7-16. TEAMS are coached by VOLUNTEERS (mainly PARENTS). They are very POPULAR. a) American Football (POP WARNER) b) BIDDY BASKETBALL c) PEE WEE BASEBALL. The LOMBARDIAN ethic is very strong and structure can reflect PRO leagues Eg: MINI SUPER BOWL

18. Draft Little League High School College Sport Pro Sport Scholarship PATHWAYS TO PROFESSIONAL SPORT The CONVENTIONAL (usual) route to sporting excellence in the USA is through the EDUCATION system. SCHOLARSHIPS are given by COLLEGES (University) to excellent HIGH SCHOOL sports people in most sports. Due to TITLE 1X they are available EQUALLY to MEN & WOMEN. The BIG 4 sports are a PROGRESSIVE step towards the PRO leagues. COMMERCIALISM is huge at college level through BUSINESS, SPONSORS, MEDIA. College sport is a HIGH STANDARD and ADMISSION price is also HIGH. College sport is ADMINISTERED by NCAA (National Collegiate Athletic Association). CONTROVERSIES: 1. Outstanding athletes issued scholarships without sufficient ACADEMIC ABILITY. This led to SPECIAL ADMIT PROGRAMMES: Academic PROGRAMMES are found that match the athletes NEEDS. 20% of scholarships are issued this way. 2. LOMBARDIAN ETHIC: Coaches apply too much PRESSURE which means academic performance suffers 3. HUGE SALARIES; of the COACHES & Athletics DIRECTORS. Students do not get paid 4. SCHOLARSHIPS are BINDING CONTRACTS and are only worth approximately $10,000. EXPLOITED athletes are seen as LABOURERS which make the coaches and colleges FINANCIALLY AFFLUENT. Students however do NOT COMPLAIN because a) OPPORTUNITY b) KUDOS & STATUS c) EXCITEMENT d) Team players CONFORM to discipline (Pragmatic Role Acceptance) e) SELF ESTEEM f) AMBITION g) Promise of the DRAFT (where the best pro clubs select the best college players) Task: The USA collegiate system can be viewed as a provider of opportunity or a system of exploitation. Discuss

19. PATHWAYS TO PROFESSIONAL SPORT in the UK OPPORTUNITY, PROVISION & ESTEEM are the 3 main factors which affect route to excellence in both the USA and the UK. UK SPORT: has overall responsibility for producing sporting EXCELLENCE. The AMBITION was to achieve 4th place at 2012. However an underlying theme is that International excellence can NO longer be TRUSTED to AMATEURS or VOLUNTEERS. There must now be a PROFESSIONAL approach SPORTS INSTITUTES: These are centres dedicated to providing SUPPORT to ELITE athletes. They underpin the SUCCESS of the OLYMPIC and PARALYMPIC teams. NON OLYMPIC sports are supported by their NGBs. It uses the NATIONAL LOTTERY to fund the programmes and not direct government funding. The SERVICES they support include; 1. COACHING 2. SPORTS SCIENCE & MEDICINE 3. PHYSIOTHERAPY 4. NUTRITION 5. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS 6. LIFESTYLE ADVICE Task:

20. EQUALITY & DISCRIMINATION in the USA DISCRIMINATION: When perceived members of a group are PREJUDICED against. Multi Culturalism has not been achieved easily in the USA TOKENISM: When teams use a SMALL number of ETHNIC MINORITY athletes in order to give the appearance of being NON-DISCRIMINATORY. This happens in other walks of life. MLB was ‘white only’ until 1947. Tokenism occurred in MLB in the 1950s STACKING: Using PLAYERS of ETHNIC MINORITIES in PERIPHERAL POSITIONS. These often require ATHLETICISM and LIMITED STRATEGIC influence (Wide receivers in NFL) In MLB African Americans were also stacked into OUTFIELDpositions CENTRALITY: These are sporting positions with DECISION MAKING responsibilities. (Quarter Back in US Football or Pitcher in Baseball) WHITE FLIGHT: White players have withdrawn from basketball. It is increasingly PERCEIVED as belonging to AFRICAN AMERICANS GLASS CEILING: This term indicates the DIVISION between 2 LAYERS of society. Those beneath the glass can see their AMBITION but cannot break the BARRIER to get there. Outstanding ROLE MODELS have contributed to breaking through this; JESSE OWENS, MOHAMMED ALI, ALTHEA GIBSON (Wimbledon 1957), WILLIAMS SISTERS, TIGER WOODS. INTEGRATION has been gradual in the 20th C. 20% of MLB, 70% of NFL & 80% of NBA are now African American. Success of Ethnic Minorities depends on OPPORTUNITY, PROVISION & ESTEEM. Task:

21. A2 PE Exercise Physiology

22. Exercise PhysiologyEnergy

23. ENERGY CONCEPTS • CHEMICAL ENERGY: Plants convert SUNLIGHT into energy which is stored within the BONDS of chemical COMPOUNDS or MOLECULES. This is then passed to HUMANS in the form of FOOD. It is stored as CHO, PROTEIN or FATS. We then further store this energy in a HIGH ENERGY compound called ADENOSINE TRI-PHOSPHATE (ATP). ATP can be immediately used as energy by the body. Energy found between the bonds of ATP is called .... • POTENTIAL ENERGY: This is when energy is ready to use, for example ready for muscles to CONTRACT. This energy is then called … • KINETIC ENERGY: which is energy in the form of MOVEMENT. • ENERGY is the ability to perform WORK or put MASS into MOTION. In human terms it means contracting muscles for physical activity. It is measured in JOULES (J) which is equivalent to 10 NEWTONs force or 1Kg acting over a distance of 1 metre. It can also be measured in CALORIES and this is equivalent to 4.18 Joules. • WORK is when a FORCE is applied to a body to move it over a distance. WORK = FORCE (N) X DISTANCE MOVED (M) measured in Joules • POWER is the RATE at which WORK can be done. It is work divide by time. POWER = WORK / TIME or (FORCE (N) x DISTANCE (M)) / TIME (secs) The UNITS are WATTS (W). Force X Distance = PURE STRENGTH

24. ADENOSINE TRI PHOSPHATE (ATP) • ATP is made up of a complex element called ADENOSINE and three simple elements called PHOSPHATEs (P). These elements are held together by BONDS which are HIGH ENERGY bonds. An ENZYME called ATPase breaks the bonds between 2 of the Phosphates. When it does this it releases ENERGY which is used for muscular CONTRACTIONS. This is an EXOTHERMIC reaction because it RELEASES ENERGY as it progresses. • The COMPOUND which is left is called ADENOSINE DI PHOSPHATE (ADP). If there is no ATP present then energy for work is not possible. The body only has a LIMITED CAPACITY to store ATP. It can only last for 2 to 3 SECONDS of work. After this time the body has to find a way of RE-SYNTHESISING ADP back into ATP again. It has lost a Phosphate. ADP must find another to REBUILD it an become reusable. This is an ENDOTHERMIC REACTION because energy is REQUIRED from somewhere to progress. • The body has 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS with which to re-synthesise ADP to ATP. • The ATP / PC SYSTEM • The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM • The AEROBIC SYSTEM • Each system uses energy from one reaction to use in another reaction. This is called a COUPLED REACTION

25. ENERGY SYSTEMS • The 3 Energy Systems that re-synthesise ATP from ADP are the 1) ATP/PC system 2) Lactic Acid System 3) Aerobic Energy System • When ATP levels fall and ADP levels rise an ENZYME called CREATINE KINASE is released and this breaks the PC bond in an EXOTHERMIC reaction. This energy is used to re-synthesise ATP from ADP in an ENDOTHERMIC reaction • The ATP / PC system can work ANAEROBICALLY as well as AEROBICALLY but it does NOT require 02. It takes place in the SARCOPLASM of the cell. However it can only supply enough PC to re-synthesise ADP to ATP for 3 to 10 seconds during MAXIMAL intensity. In recovery, Creatine and Phosphate (Pi) are RE-SYNTHESISED back to PC TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Anaerobic Training overloads the ATP / PC system and increases the muscle’s ATP and PC stores which delays the THRESHOLD between using this system and the Lactic Acid System by 2 secs ADVANTAGES: No 02, Quickly Available, Quick Reaction, Explosive, Powerful, No Fatiguing By Products, PC re-synthesised quickly DISADVANTAGES: Stores are small, 1 PC re-synthesises ONLY 1ATP, Only energy for 8 – 10 secs

26. ENERGY SYSTEMS 2) The LACTIC ACID SYSTEM: This system uses GLYCOGEN to re-synthesise ADP back to ATP. The energy released through breaking down glucose is used to do this. This is also a COUPLED and ENDOTHERMIC reaction. Glucose is CHO in the body and when it is stored it is called GLYCOGEN. The decrease in PC stores activates the ENZYME GLYCOGEN PHOSPHORYLASE which breaks down the glycogen into glucose. It is then further broken down into PYRUVIC ACID in a process called GLYCOLYSIS. The process takes place in the SARCOPLASM, does not require 02 and is called ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS. This process releases 2 ATP from one glucose molecule During Glycolysis the ENZYME PHOSPHOFRUKTIKINASE (PFK) causes Pyruvic Acid but without 02 present this breaks down further into LACTIC ACID by the ENZYME LACTATE DEHYDROGENASE (LDH). This process re-synthesises energy for 2 – 3 minutes of high intensity exercise but if activity is MAXIMAL it will only last 30 seconds ADVANTAGES: Relatively QUICK, no 02 required, Glycogen readily available, Re-synethises 2 ATP from 1 glucose molecule DISADVANTAGES: OBLA, Inhibition of ENZYMES due to lower Ph, increased FATIGUE, stimulates PAIN receptors. TRAINING ADAPTATIONS: Overloading this system will increase LACTATE BUFFER and delay OBLA

27. ENERGY SYSTEMS • The AEROBIC ENERGY SYSTEM: This has 3 stages to re-synthesise ATP. All 3 systems require 02 to break down 1 molecule of Glucose STAGE 1: AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS: This is the same process as anaerobic glycolysis but instead the presence of 02 INHIBITS the accumulation of LACTIC ACID. The 02 uses PYRUVIC ACID and this combines with ‘CoENZYME A’ to become ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’. This takes place in the SARCOPLASM. STAGE 2: KREB’s CYCLE: The ‘ACETYL CoENZYME A’ now combines with OXALOACETIC ACID to form CITRIC ACID in the MITOCHONDRIA. This is then broken down to produce 4 EVENTS 1) C02 is produced and removed 2) HYDROGEN ATOMS are removed (Oxidation) 3) OXALOACETIC ACID is regenerated which is used again 4) Energy is produced to re-synthesise 2 ATP STAGE 3: The ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN (ETC): HYDROGEN ATOMS released in Stage 2 combines with CoENZYMES NAD and FAD to form NADH and FADH. These are carried down the ETC where HYDROGEN is split into HYDROGEN IONS (H+) and HYDROGEN ELECTRONS (e-). This takes place in the MITOCHONDRIA and 3 EVENTS follow 1) e- split from the atom and pass down the ETC 2) This provides ENERGY to synthesise 34 ATP 3) H+ combines with 02 to form water (H20)

28. ENERGY SYSTEMS ADAVANTAGES: large GLYCOGEN & FFA stores, 02 supply Large synthesis, High DURATION (3 mins to 1 hr), No fatiugingBY PRODUCTS (C02/H20) DISADVANTAGES: Slower Re-synthesis, Requires 15% more 02 supply for FFAs, COMPLEX reactions, Initial DELAY of synthesis at start of activity, Limited ENERGY during high intensity activity FATS (TRIGLYCERIDES) are broken down by ENZYME LIPASE into FFAs which are the broken down into ACETYL CoA. This is where it enters the KREB Cycle. They can produce more Acetyl CoA than Glucose but require 15% more 02. TRAINING increases Glycogen in muscle and liver, increases mobilisation of Enzymes and uses FFAs early = Aerobic Threshold increased • TOTAL ENERGY YIELD from the Aerobic System is 38 ATP from one molecule of Glucose • 2 ATP from Anaerobic Glycolysis • 2 ATP from the Kreb’s Cycle • 34 ATP from the ETC EQUATION for AEROBIC RESPIRATION: C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 = 6C02 + 6 H20 + ENERGY (for 38 ATP re-synthesis) Glucose is broken down in the Aerobic system by 02 into C02 and H20

29. ENERGY CONTINUUM • The Energy Continuum is a GRAPHICAL display of how the energy systems INTERACT together to provide energy for the re-synthesis of ATP. It highlights the PERCENTAGE of each of these 3 systems relating to both the DURATION and the INTENSITY of the activity. • Each sport/physical activity requires different percentages from each system. They RARELY work in ISOLATION. Some activities are mainly AEROBIC whilst others are ANAEROBIC. Most use a COMBINATION of all 3 Draw the following graph to represent how the Energy Systems Interact. X Axis = Time in minutes from 0 to 360 seconds and the Y Axis = Capacity of Energy System in % from 0 to 100%. Plot the following data for 3 lines 1) ATP / PC System (12, 98) (16, 50) (22 ,5) 2) Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis) (2, 1) (15, 60) (20, 95) (45, 98) (120, 93) (180, 50) (240, 35) (300, 25) 3) Aerobic Energy System (10, 10) (20, 25) (120 , 40) (300, 70) (360, 98) Highlight the points at which the PREDOMINANT energy system changes

30. THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED • INTENSITY and DURATION of the exercise: when the intensity is ANAEROBIC HIGH INTENSITY SHORT duration the system will be ATP/PC When intensity is LOW and duration is LONG the system will be AEROBIC. When intensity reaches a point that the aerobic system cannot be used it uses the LACTIC ACID system but this produces LACTIC ACID. The LACTATE THRESHOLD crossed when blood lactate is above resting levels. When blood lactate reaches 4mmol/L and above then OBLA has been reached. Fatigue will occur • ENERGY SYSTEM THRESHOLDS: a threshold is the POINT at which an energy system is taken over by another. ATP/PC system is 2-10seconds. ATP / PC changes to Lactic Acid System at 10 – 90 seconds. Lactic Acid to Aerobic System changes at 90 seconds to 3 minutes. After this it is the Aerobic System unless INTENSITY is high. • 02 AVAILABILITY: As long as 02 supply is there the Aerobic System will re-synthesise ATP. If there is INSUFFICIENT 02 the LACTIC ACID system will be used. This is dependent on RESPIRATORY and CV EFFICIENCY

31. THE 6 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE TYPE OF ENERGY SYSTEM USED 4) FUEL AVAILABILITY: PC will be used for SHORT, HIGH intensity activity. Duration cannot be sustained when PC stores DEPLETE and intensity remain HIGH. PACING can conserve PC stores and RECOVERY periods can re-synthesise them. GLYCOGEN is the MAJOR fuel for the first 20 minutes of activity. It is readily available in the muscles and requires 15% less 02 than FFAs. It takes 2-3 minutes to use this though as sufficient 02 has not had time. Between 20 – 45 minutes FFAs will be broken down as well but only if intensity is LOW because of the need for 15% more 02. High LIVER GLYCOGEN levels will allow the athlete to maintain a higher intensity After 2 HOURS glycogen is DEPLETED and FFAs must be used. Unless athletes reduce intensity to allow 02 supply they may HIT THE WALL. 5) ENZYME ACTIVATION LEVELS: Reactions cannot take place without them. CREATINE KINASE is released when ADP increases and ATP decreases. This activates the PC system. PFK is released when PC decreases and this activates the Lactic Acid system. PFK is also released when ADRENALIN increases and INSULIN decreases, activating the AEROBIC system 6) FITNESS LEVELS: The more aerobically fit an athlete is the better 02/C02 transport which is essential to break down glycogen and FFAs. Conserving glycogen is crucial to delay OBLA and aerobic and lactate THRESHOLDS

32. ENERGY SYSTEMS - Glossary Test • What are the advantages and disadvantages of the three systems. 2. What are the 6 Factors which influence the energy system used

33. THE RECOVERY PROCESS • The Recovery process is concerned with the events AFTER exercise. It is important DURING exercise to allow performers to MAINTAIN performance and also AFTER exercise to SPEED UP their recovery. The aim is twofold: • RESTORE the body to its PRE EXERCISE STATE by removing BY PRODUCTS • The REPLENISHMENT of FUELS. • After exercise the body does not return immediately to its pre exercise state. RESPIRATION and HEART RATE remain elevated. This is known as EPOC(EXCESS POST EXERCISE 02 CONSUMPTION) or 02 DEBT. It has 2 STAGES: • ALACTACID DEBT: (RAPID RECOVERY STAGE) This restores stores of PHOSPHAGEN and the re-synthesis of ATP , PC, MYOGLOBIN and Hb. It requires approximately 3-4 Litres of 02 and takes about 3-4 MINUTES but 50% are restored in 30 seconds and 75% restored in 1 minute • LACTACID DEBT: (SLOW RECOVERY STAGE) Early research thought this was responsible for the removal or re-conversion of LACTIC ACID into either PYRUVIC ACID (which can be used as fuel), GLYCOGEN, or PROTEIN. Now it is thought that it supports 3 things: A) METABOLIC FUNCTIONS such as HIGH TEMPERATURE, B) remaining HORMONES such as adrenalin, and C) elevated CARDIAC OUTPUT to reduce temperature. It requires 5-8 Litres of 02 and can take between 1-24 hours depending on the exercise intensity

34. THE RECOVERY PROCESS • Increased levels of C02 formed during exercise is removed as CARBONIC ACID, CARBOAMINOHAEMOGLOBIN, or in the PLASMA. The CHEMORECEPTORS stimulate the RCC and the CCC to ensure that respiration and heart rate are ELEVATED during recovery to assist C02 removal. • A major factor of MUSCLE FATIGUE is GLYCOGEN DEPLETION. Most can be REPLENISHED within 10-12 hours after exercise. Complete recovery can take 2 DAYS in prolonged endurance events. FAST twitch fibres can replenish quicker. CARBOHYDRATES in recovery are crucial for this to happen

35. Exercise PhysiologyApplications of the Principles of Training

36. THE RECOVERY PROCESS: Practical • Measure your Heart Rate Thresholds using the KARVONEN method. This is much more accurate: • Calculate your Resting Heart Rate in BPM (65 BPM) • Calculate your Maximum Heart Rate in BPM using 220 – Your Age: If Aged 41… 220 – 41 = 179 BPM • Subtract your Resting Heart Rate from your Maximum Heart Rate. This is called your HEART RATE RESERVE 179 – 65 = 114 BPM • To ascertain your Aerobic Training Thresholds (60% and 80%) multiply your Heart Rate Reserve x 0.6 or 0.8 and then add your Resting Heart Rate 60% = (114 x 0.6) + 65 = 133 BPM 80% = (114 x 0.8) + 65 = 156 BPM

37. APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING • Remember the Principles of Training by MRS VOPP who is TESTING the WC • MODERATION: Striking the right BALANCE between too little training and too much. Too much, too soon can result in injuries • REVERSIBILITY: The adaptations to training are reversed if training stops. ATROPHY (decrease in cell size) can result. Results are lost 3 TIMES as quickly as they are gained. AEROBIC adaptations reverse quicker than ANAEROBIC • SPECIFICITY: Training must reflect the demands of the sport and it is applied in 2 ways 1) INDIVIDUAL: Genetic differences 2) THE SPORT concentrating on the energy systems, fitness components & muscle fibres • VARIATION: If your training is varied it will increase MOTIVATION. It also can prevent injury through REPETITIVE strains • OVERLOAD: When the body is made to work harder than normal to cause ADAPTATION. It is achieved in 4 WAYS 1) FREQUENCY (How OFTEN) 2) INTENSITY (How HARD) 3) TIME (How LONG) 4) TYPE (AEROBIC or ANAEROBIC) • PROGRESSION: This is gradually increasing the level of overload to ensure further adaptation. This is called PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD. These are greater EARLY in training. The point of DIMINISHING RETURN is reached when further progression brings about no further adaptations

38. APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING • Remember the Principles of Training by MRS VOPP who is TESTING the WC • PERIODISATION is the organisation of training into specific BLOCKS. The ultimate aim is to ensure that athletes reach their PEAK at the correct TIME such as the Olympics. You divide your TRAINING YEAR into 3 seasons: 1) PRE SEASON: There are 3 parts to this. 1.1 BASIC FITNESS phase, 1.2 SPECIFIC EVENT phase and 1.3 PRE COMPETITION phase 2) COMPETITIVE SEASON: Consists of 2.1 MAINTENANCE phase (reduced intensity, rest, tactics) and 2.2 MONITORING AND RECOVERY phase (TAPERED down training, avoid BURN OUT) 3) TRANSITION (OFF) SEASON: Consists of 3.1 REST/RECOVERY phase (low level remedial activity) and 3.2 LOW LEVEL phase (cross training) To each you need to apply 4 basic CYCLES: A) A MEGA cycle lasts more than 1 year. B) MACRO CYCLE which is a LONG term plan (1 year) C) MESOCYCLE is a MEDIUM term plan typically between 4 and 16 weeks D) MICRO CYCLE is SHORT term plan lasting typically 1 week but can last up to 3 weeks. It is a recurrent UNIT. A UNIT can also be an individual training session, or parts of it. A week of 3 training sessions is 3 Units. However in the same session there may be 2 units – strength and flexibility. • Periodisation BENEFITS are the application of the PRINCIPLES of training • TESTING: This allows you to MONITOR your training to ensure correct level of OVERLOAD and to ensure further ADAPTATIONS and avoid BURN OUT

39. APPLICATIONS OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING WARM UP: This should precede any activity to help prepare PHYSIOLOGICALLY and MENTALLY. Benefits include INCREASES in muscle TEMPERATURE, nerve impulse CONDUCTION, 02 DISSOCIATION, muscle FORCE, SPEED, and ELASTICITY. It releases more SYNOVIAL FLUID, RE-DISTRIBUTES blood flow, reduces INJURY and delays OBLA. WARM UP: There are 3 phases: • PULSE RAISER • MOBILITY • STRETCHING. COOL DOWN: There are 2 phases • ACTIVE RECOVERY (Pulse Lowering). To keep CV & RESPIRATORY levels high • STRETCHES • The benefits include maintained VR, SV, Q, VE and Bp. Gradual REDUCTIONS in muscle TEMPERATURE reduced, reduces risk of DOMS and INJURY. It flushes capillaries with 02, speeds up LACTIC ACID removal and prevents BLOOD POOLING

40. Exercise PhysiologyHealth Components:Aerobic Capacity

41. AEROBIC CAPACITY AEROBIC CAPACITY is the ability to INSPIRE, TRANSPORT and USE 02 in SUSTAINED and PROLONGED periods of SUB-MAXIMAL exercise or work. It is DEPENDENT on 3 things: 1. PULMONARY VENTILATION (Inspiration) and EXTERNAL RESPIRATION (This is at the junction of the capillary and the alveoli) 2. INTERNAL 02 TRANSPORT through the HEART, BLOOD and BLOOD VESSELS 3. INTERNAL RESPIRATION (This is at the junction of the muscle and capillary) V02 MAX is the HIGHEST RATE of O2 CONSUMPTION attainable during EXHAUSTIVE or MAXIMAL exercise or work. It is very closely linked to aerobic capacity but is NOTTHE SAME. One of the best indicators of aerobic ENDURANCE is the ability to exercise at a HIGHPERCENTAGE of your V02 MAX which is just below your ANAEROBIC THRESHOLD or OBLA = @ 85% in ELITE athletes). This is the point at which you stop working with O2 and start working anaerobically. Typical VALUES for V02 Max in different activities. UNITS: (ml of O2/Kg/min)

42. 5 FACTORS AFFECTING V02 MAX • INDIVIDUAL PHYSIOLOGICAL MAKE UP: This is an individual’s capability of to LINK the 4 body systems specifically i) Their RESPIRATORYsystem to CONSUME O2 ii) Their HEART to DISTRIBUTE O2 iii) Their VASCULAR system to TRANSPORT O2 and iv) Their MUSCLE CELLS to USE O2. The HIGHER an athlete’s VO2 Max, means the athlete has GREATER POTENTIAL to work at an even HIGHER level. This therefore INCREASES INTENSITY & delays FATIGUE • GENETICS: This can account for HALF the VARIATIONS in VO2 Max. EG: a HEREDITARY high number of FOG fibres, or a high genetic speed of ADAPTATION (SUPER RESPONDER) • TRAINING: if the training is SPECIFIC to AEROBIC TRAINING then VO2 Max will INCREASE because it will cause LONG TERM ADAPTATIONS. A MAXIMUM level of CONDITIONING can be reached in 6 to 19 MONTHS of HEAVY ENDURANCE training • AGE: as age increases 2 things occur i) CV: LEFT VENTRICLE CONTRACTION strength reduces and ii) RESPIRATORY: decreased ELASTICITY in LUNG TISSUE means O2 TRANSPORT to the MUSCLES is LIMITED. In addition, there is a DECREASEDa-VO2 DIFF (the amount of O2 which DIFFUSES into the muscles from the haemoglobin at INTERNAL RESPIRATION). • GENDER: VO2 Max values are 20-25% lower in WOMEN. This is due to: • INCREASED BODY FAT % • Smaller LUNG VOLUME • Smaller HEART which INCREASES resting HR and DECREASESSV, Q • Lower HAEMOGLOBIN levels Task: Critically evaluate the role of the different factors which affect VO2 Max when planning a training programme

43. AEROBIC CAPACITY TRAINING There are 4 TYPES of TRAINING that you must be able to evaluate. Aerobic Training METHODS involve WHOLE BODY activities such as RUNNING, CYCLING, ROWING & SWIMMING. Its AIM is to OVERLOAD the CARDIOVASCULAR / RESPIRATORY systems using the FITT principle to INCREASE Aerobic CAPACITY and VO2 MAX. FREQUENCY: Minimum of 3-5 SESSIONS per week for 12 WEEKS. INTENSITY: Raise your HEART RATE into the relevant THRESHOLD. TIME: Minimum of 3-5 MINUTES to 40 MINUTES +. TYPE: Overloading the AEROBIC system 1. CONTINUOUS TRAINING: STEADY STATE SUB MAXIMAL training for at least 20-30 minutes. This is suited to ENDURANCE athletes where O2 demands are met by the SUPPLY from the CV & Respiratory systems. HEART RATE should be 55% +. It is often used during PHASE 1.1 of PRE SEASON 2. FARTLEK TRAINING: Swedish word for SPEEDPLAY. It is STEADY STATE dispersed with HIGH INTENSITY periods and SLOW RECOVERY periods. If running this can be a MIX of SPRINTS, JOGS & WALKS but it can be applied to SKIING ROWING CYCLING etc. It can also be a mix of TERRAINS. It is ideal for GAMES players. HEART RATE will move between THRESHOLDS. 3. INTERVAL TRAINING: This is periods of HIGH INTENSITY EXERCISE periods mixed with RELIEF / RECOVERY (REST) periods. This is SPECIFICIED to meet training NEEDS. To do this athletes CHANGE one of the 4 following COMPONENTS: a. Interval DURATION: Eg. 3-4 minutes or 1000 metres b. Interval INTENSITY: % Heart Rate c. RECOVERY intervals: Increases / Decreases or ACTIVE or PASSIVE d. Number of WORK-RELIEF Intervals: Eg 2 x 2000m & 800m recovery or 4 x 1000m & 400m recovery 4. REPETITION RUNNING: is the same principle as interval training but suited to DISTANCE runners. Eg a 5000m runner would run 5 x 1000m but with HIGHER INTENSITY. They would REDUCE relief time

44. AEROBIC TRAINING METHODS Task: Design a training session for each method highlighted

45. ENERGY SYSTEM AND FOOD FUELS DURING AEROBIC WORK ATP and PC are the immediate fuels for AEROBIC exercise. RESYNTHESIS of ATP involves all 3 stages: 1) AEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS 2) KREB’s CYCLE 3) ETC ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN. Aerobic work is fuelled by GLYCOGEN / GLUCOSE and FREE FATTY ACIDS. This depends on the INTENSITY and DURATION of the session and the AVAILABILITY of the fuel. Glycogen is the major fuel for the first 20-40 MINUTES. During MODERATE to SEVERE intensity the fuel is only glycogen After 20-45 MINUTES the body can use FATS along with glycogen and its use increases as the glycogen stores DEPLETE. Fats can only be used if the INTENSITY is LOW as the 02 needed to METABOLISE (break it down) is much HIGHER than for glycogen. After 2 HOURS glycogen stores deplete and FAT is used in ISOLATION. If INTENSITY is too HIGH then OBLA is reached and glycogen has to be broken down ANAEROBICALLY. A STEP CLASS is popular with women. Usually it consists of 5-10 min WARM UP followed by 30-40 minutes of CARDIO VASCULAR work followed by 10-15 minutes of BODY WEIGHT exercise. TASK Critically evaluate the effectiveness of glycogen and triglyceride as a food fuel for a games player

46. A2 PE Sports Psychology

47. INDIVIDUAL ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE PERSONALITY PERSONALITY PROFILING ACHIEVMENT MOTIVATION ATTITUDES ATTRIBUTION AGGRESSION

48. PERSONALITY • Performance and participation are determined by personality. There are 3 THEORIES of PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT. • TRAIT PERSPECTIVE: Personality is made up of many SECONDARY TRAITS that we INHERIT from our PARENTS. Behaviour is INNATE, GENETICALLY determined, STABLE and CONSISTENT in all situations. Behaviour = Function of Personality (B = F(P)) EYESENCK’s model identifies 4 primary personality traits or types: A) Neurotic B) Stable C) Introvert D) Extrovert. In 1975 he added a 3rd scale called PSYCHOTICISM also called MENTAL TOUGHNESS or being TOUGH MINDED. This describes the capacity to cope with pressure. It assesses a persons PERSONALITY PROFILE with a test called the EPQ – Eyesenck’s Personality Questionnaire CATTELL believed in TRAIT theory but believed more than 3 dimensions were needed. This led to Cattell’s16 PF (Personality Factor) TEST GIRDANIO was a trait theorist. He proposed that there are 2 DISTINCT PERSONALITIES – TYPE A (competitive, works fast, ambitious, controlling, stressed) and TYPE B (non competitive, works slowly, low ambition, not controlling, less prone to stress). This is NARROW BAND

49. PERSONALITY • SOCIAL LEARNING PERSPECTIVE : All behaviour is LEARNED through ENVIRONMENTAL experiences. It is NOT GENETIC. Behaviour = Function of Environment (B = F(E)). BANDURA believed there are 2 PROCESSES in SOCIAL LEARNING A) Behaviour of others is IMITATED by observation and is VICARIOUS (you watch the performance) B) Behaviour is endorsed by SOCIAL REINFORCEMENT. There are 4 CONDITIONS that support SOCIAL LEARNING: • If the demonstrator is a SIGNIFICANT OTHER 2) If the Role model has POWER 3) Observer and Role Model are same GENDER 4) The observer wants to adopt the NORMS of a new CULTURE.

50. PERSONALITY 3) INTERACTIONIST APPROACH: (Hollander 1967). Behaviour is a combination of the influence of TRAITS and EXPERIENCES . It has 3 levels. 1) TYPICAL RESPONSES: These are LEARNED behaviours and are CHANGEABLE. A person responds to the ENVIRONMENT 2) PSYCHOLOGICAL CORE: The True Self. It is STABLE, but difficult to research 3) ROLE RELATED BEHAVIOUR: This is DYNAMIC and CHANGEABLE. An individual fulfils more than one role in a day. It is a consequence of the IMMEDIATE ENVIRONMENT. Behaviour = FUNCTION of PERSONALITY X ENVIRONMENT (B = F(P X E)) Genetically Inherited Traits are triggered by the Environmental. Behaviour is therefore UNPREDICATABLE The 4 factors that influence how we respond in any situation are: GENETICS, PAST EXPERIENCES, NATURE OF THE SITUATION, PERSONAL FREE WILL