Chapter 3 Research

1. Chapter 3Research

2. A Scientific Approach • Provides systematic ways of investigating claims in ways that improve on casual observations • Requires that theories be backed up by empirical evidence from controlled studies and that observations be checked and repeated before conclusions are drawn

3. Scientific Approaches to Research (cont.) Figure 3.1 The research process in abnormal child psychology.

4. Skepticism in Child Psychopathology Research • Reasons: • experts on childhood disorders frequently disagree • findings often in conflict with one another • research has led to different treatment recommendations, and some treatments shown to have no effect • conclusions are often qualified, with no definitive answers • findings often dismissed because of exceptions or personal experiences to the contrary

5. Common Research Topics • Nature and Distribution of Childhood Disorders • epidemiological research addresses questions about the nature and distribution of childhood disorders • incidence rates: the extent to which new cases of a disorder appear over a specified time period • prevalence rates: all cases, whether new or previously existing, that are observed during a specified time period

6. Common Research Topics (cont.) • Correlates, Risks, and Causes • correlated variables are associated at a particular point in time with no clear proof that one precedes the other • risk factor: variable that precedes an outcome of interest and increases the chances that the outcome will occur • protective factor: variable that precedes an outcome of interest and decreases the chances that the outcome will occur

7. Common Research Topics (cont.) • Moderating and Mediating Variables • moderating variable: a factor that influences the direction or strength of the relationship between other variables of interest • mediating variable: the process, mechanism, or means through which a variable produces a particular outcome; describes what happens at the psychological or neurobiological level to explain how one variable results from another

8. Common Research Topics (cont.) Figure 3.2 Mediating variables: The type of discipline used by mothers on days they are feeling distressed mediates the relationship between maternal distress and child behavior problems.

9. Common Research Topics (cont.) • Outcomes associated with childhood problems • Interventions • treatment efficacy: refers to whether or not a treatment can produce changes under well-controlled conditions • treatment effectiveness: refers to whether the treatment can be shown to work in actual clinical practice, rather than in laboratory conditions

10. Standardization, Reliability, and Validity • Standardization • the process by which a set of norms is specified for a measurement procedure so that it can be used consistently across different assessments • Reliability • the consistency of a measure, either across raters or time • Validity • the extent to which the method actually measures the construct of interest

11. Forms of Measurement • Reporting • includes unstructured clinical interviews, highly structured interviews, and questionnaires • inaccuracies may occur because of inability to recall events, selective recall or bias, and intentional distortions • requires a certain level of verbal ability, therefore often not considered reliable with children under age 7 or 8

12. Forms of Measurement (cont.) • Psychophysiology and Neuroimaging • physiological responses often recorded include heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupil dilation, and electrical skin conductance • limitations of physiological measures include inconsistency, high level of inference often involved, and susceptibility to extraneous influences • electroencephalogram (EEG) measures electrical activity of the brain • neuroimaging procedures examine the structure and/or function of the brain

13. Forms of Measurement (cont.) • Observation • may range from unstructured, naturalistic observations to highly structured • compared to naturalistic observations, structured observations are often cost-effective, allow for focused attention, are useful for studying infrequent behavior, and allow for greater control over the situation • major limitation is that one cannot be certain the observations are a representative sample of behavior

14. Validity of Studies • Internal validity • the extent to which a particular variable, rather than extraneous influences, accounts for the findings • may be threatened by maturation, effects of testing, an subject selection biases • External validity • the extent to which findings can be generalized to other people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics • may be threatened by subject reactivity to participation, the setting, and the time measurements are made

15. Identifying the Sample • A careful definition of the sample is critical for comparability of findings across studies • Must consider comorbidities among the sample • Random selection is rare in child psychopathology studies; often need to use a sample of convenience

16. General Approaches to Research • Nonexperimental vs Experimental Research • in true experiments, researchers have maximum control over the independent variable, subjects are randomly assigned, and possible sources of bias are controlled • correlational studies only examine relationships among variables- causality cannot be determined • natural experiments involve comparisons between conditions that already exist

17. General Approaches to Research (cont.) • Prospective vs Retrospective Research • real-time prospective designs: sample is followed longitudinally over time; time consuming and susceptible to sample attrition • retrospective designs: sample is asked for information relating to an earlier time period; highly susceptible to recall bias and distortion • Analogue Research • evaluation of a specific variable under conditions that only resemble the situation to which one wishes to generalize

18. Research Designs • Case Studies • intensive and usually anecdotal observations and analyses of an individual child; rich sources of descriptive information • often viewed as unscientific and flawed because of uncontrolled methods and selective biases, as well as the inherent difficulties in integrating observations, drawing valid inferences, and generalizing from one child to other children

19. Research Designs (cont.) • Single-Case Experimental Designs • often used to evaluate the impact of treatments • involves repeated assessment of behavior over time, replication of treatment effects within the same subject, and the subject serving as own control • common examples are the A-B-A-B (reversal) design and the multiple-baseline design • weaknesses: possible interactions between treatment and subject characteristics, limited generality of findings, and subjectivity and inconsistency of visual inspection of the data

20. Research Designs (cont.) • Between-Group Comparison Designs • involves comparisons between experimental and control groups • Cross-Sectional Studies • individuals at different ages or stages of development are studied at the same point in time • often efficient and less susceptible to attrition and practice effects • do not allow for inferences regarding change in the individual and are susceptible to cohort effects

21. Research Designs (cont.) • Longitudinal Studies • same individuals are studied at different ages or stages of development • allows for identification of patterns that are common to all children and for tracking differences in developmental paths • disadvantages include time commitment, increased costs, aging effects, cohort effects, period effects, and practice effects

22. Qualitative Research • Purpose is to describe, interpret, and understand the phenomenon of interest in the context in which it is experienced • Although intensive and intimate, may be biased by researcher’s values and preferences, and findings cannot be generalized to other individuals

23. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues • Informed Consent and Assent • informed consent must be obtained from parents • child’s assent must be obtained when child is around age 7 or older • Voluntary Participation • participation in research must be voluntary • may be compromised by subtle pressure and coercion

24. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont.) • Confidentiality and Anonymity • disclosed information must be kept confidential • individuals must be advised about any exceptions to confidentiality • disclosures of abuse common problem in child research • Non-harmful procedures • no research procedures may be used that may harm a child physically or psychologically

25. Ethical and Pragmatic Issues (cont.) • Other Ethical and Pragmatic Concerns • may arise when research involves potentially invasive procedures, deception, the use of punishment, the use of incentives • final responsibility of ethical integrity is with the investigator