Chapter 7 & 8: Memory, Thinking, Language, Intelligence

1. Chapter 7 & 8: Memory, Thinking, Language, Intelligence AP Psychology

2. The Nature of Memory • Memory • Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience • Memories are NOT exact recordings of events • Constructive Process • Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories

3. Models of Memory • Information-Processing Model • Information that we encounter goes through 3 basic operations • Encoding: Processing information into the memory system • Storage: Retaining information over time • Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage

4. Models of Memory • Parallel Distributed Processing Model • Memory results from weblike connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially • What does this mean?? • When you encounter information, you don’t analyze it one piece at a time, you take in several features at the same time! • Ex: Seeing a shark in the ocean

5. Models of Memory • Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model • Memory requires three difference stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time • Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

6. Three-Stage Memory Model • Sensory Memory • First memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds (just long enough to locate relevant bits of data to transfer to longer memory) • Iconic Memory: visual information • Lasts about half a second • Echoic Memory: auditory information • Lasts up to 4 seconds

7. Three-Stage Memory Model • Short-Term Memory (STM) • Second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to Long-Term Memory (LTM) • Capacity is limited to 5 to 9 items, and duration is about 30 seconds • How to make it last longer? Hold more? • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to maintain it in STM • Chunking: Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk)

8. Three-Stage Memory Model • Long-Term Memory • Third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time • Its capacity is virtually limitless and its duration is relatively permanent • 2 Types of Long-Term Memory

9. Long-Term Memory • Explicit (Declarative) Memory • Type of long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences • Ex: Social security number, state capitals, etc. • Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge • Episodic Memory: Stores memories of personally experienced events

10. What do we encode? • Semantic Encoding • Meaning of words • Acoustic Encoding • Sound of words • Visual Encoding • How words look

11. Long-Term Memory • Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory • Type of long-term memory consisting of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses • Memory without awareness! • Ex: Tying shoes, riding a bike, brushing teeth, fear reaction to snakes

12. How to Improve Memory Encoding • Levels of Processing: Degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered • Deeper levels of processing = more remembering! • Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to previously stored material • Not just repeating, but trying to make sense of it all

13. Retrieval • Serial Position Effect • Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle • Primacy Effect: Info at beginning remembered • Recency Effect: Info at end remembered

14. Retrieval • Retrieval Cue • Clue or prompt that helps stimulate retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM • Recall • Retrieving a memory using a general cue (vague, not giving much information) • Ex: Fill-in-the-blank quiz • Recognition • Retrieving a memory using a specific cue • Ex: Multiple-choice quiz

15. Retrieval • Priming • Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory • Ex: Smell the cologne of an ex-boyfriend, start thinking about a movie you saw with him • Ex: Deja-Vu? • Encoding Specificity Principle • Retrieval of info is improved when current conditions are similar to conditions when it was encoded • Context-dependent, mood congruence, state-dependent

16. Forgetting • Hermann Ebbinghaus– 1885 • Memorized nonsense 3 letter words (SIB, RAL…) • Knew it perfectly, then measured how many were remembered an hour later, a day later, and a week later • Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve • Forgetting is rapid at first! Then slows down over time. • Relearning takes less time than initial learning

17. Forgetting Curve for Spanish

18. Why do we forget? • Decay Theory: connections between neurons deteriorate over time if not used • Interference Theory: two memories are competing • Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with remembering old • Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with remembering new

19. Why do we forget? • Motivated Forgetting Theory: according to Freud, we forget unpleasant or anxiety producing info either consciously or unconsciously • Encoding Failure Theory: info gets to STM, but is not encoded for storage in LTM (not important enough, not rehearsed) • Retrieval Failure Theory: memories are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon)

20. Key Factors in Forgetting • Misinformation Effect • Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information • False memories based on cues (“How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other?”) • Source Amnesia • Forgetting the true source of a memory • “I saw it on CNN” when really heard it from a friend

21. Key Factors in Forgetting • Sleeper Effect • Info from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten • Information Overload • Massed Practice: time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (CRAMMING) • Distributed Practice: practice/study sessions are interspersed with rest periods

22. Biological Basis of Memory • Learning and remembering modifies the brain’s neural networks • Long-Term Potentiation • Prolonged strengthening of neural firing • Repeated stimulation causes dendrites to grow, ability of neurons to accept or release NTs can be changed

23. Biological Basis of Memory • Flashbulb Memories • Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events • Ex: 9/11, moonwalk, assassinations • Strong hormones emitted, repeated images in mind • STILL might not be 100% accurate!

24. Biological Causes of Memory Loss • Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) • Skull has a collision with another object • Ex: Car accidents, falls, gunshots, etc. • Amnesia • Loss of memory as a result of brain injury/trauma • Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury • Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury

25. Biological Causes of Memory Loss • Alzheimer’s Disease • Progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss • Occurs most commonly later in life

26. Biological Causes of Memory Loss • Karl Lashley– 1950 • Wanted to know where memories are located • Studied rats who had learned a maze • Lesioned a part of the brain, watched in maze • What he found? • No localized memories! Rats could still go through the maze even with parts of the brain removed