The Socio-cultural Level of Analysis

1. The Socio-cultural Level of Analysis Mr. Freeman

2. Brief review Outline 3 principles that define the CLOA. Briefly explain ways that these principles may be demonstrated in research.

3. Objective 1.3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the socio-cultural level of analysis.

4. What are you being asked to do? Explain how the research method is used Explain why the research method is used Provide an analysis of the importance of the particular research method at this specific level of analysis along with specific research examples.

5. Research at the sociocultural level The majority of social psychological research today is more qualitative in nature. This means that researchers are more concerned with natural occurring behaviors as oppose to controlled (although experiments are still used at the SCLOA). The behavior of the participants is as realistic as possible, to avoid studies that lack ecological validity. Why is it important, specifically at the SCLOA, to have ecologically valid research (that is, research that represents how behavior occurs in the real world)? Much of the research is done in the environments in which the behavior is most likely to take place.

6. Research Methods Experimentation Naturalistic Observations Ethnographic studies Additional methods Case studies Cross-cultural studies

7. Experimentation The first method used at the SCLOA is the straightforward experiment, involving the standard practice of manipulating quantitative, independent variables to generate statistically analyzable data. Often times researchers tend to measure changes in behaviors of participants with or without the presence of others.

8. Experimentation As the 1st principle of the SCLOA states, Social Psychology is the scientific attempt to understand and explain how mental processes are influenced by others. Thus, experimentation is necessary in order to be able to scientifically have an explanation for social influences on mental processes. Early social psychologists (such Milgram, Bandura, etc. ) carried out laboratory experiments. It was considered to be the most scientific way of obtaining data.

9. Experimentation Classic social psychology experiments are widely used and accepted to expose the key elements of aggressive behavior, prejudice and stereotyping. Experimentation gave early social psychologist, such as Milgram the ability to isolate these mental processes in order to understand the social causes of the behavior. A specific example of experimentation use at the Cognitive level of analysis is Milgram�s experiment on obedience to authority. Read more: http://www.experiment-resources.com/stanley-milgram-experiment.html

10. Stanley Milgram�s Experiments While Milgram�s research raised serious ethical questions about the use of human subjects in psychology experiments, his results have also been consistently replicated in further experiments. Thomas Blass (1999) reviewed further research on obedience and found that Milgram�s findings hold true in other experiments. His experiments have helped psychologist understand the nature of social influence on individual behavior.

11. Zimbardo�s Prison Experiment Another example of an experiment from the sociocultural perspective is the famous Stanford Prison experiment by Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo (1971). It is an experiment, as it took place in a laboratory and tested the effect of social situational influences on behavior. Participants were assigned to take the role of being either a prisoner or a guard for two weeks. Their behavior was measured through observation. Some of the confounding factors in the experiment were controlled for. For instance, the participants were randomly assigned to their role, and all participants were males in their 20s.

12. Zimbardo�s Prison Experiment Another example of an experiment from the sociocultural level of analysis is the famous Stanford Prison experiment by Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo (1971). It is an experiment, as it took place in a laboratory and tested the effect of social situational influences on behavior. Participants were assigned to take the role of being either a prisoner or a guard for two weeks. Their behavior was measured through observation. Some of the confounding factors in the experiment were controlled for. For instance, the participants were randomly assigned to their role, and all participants were males in their 20s (more detail of this experiment can be found in the orange psychology booklet). From these research experiments, what limitations do you see in using experiments at the SCLOA?

13. Zimbardo�s Prison Experiment A major limitation of experiments is their validity. How so? It is also possible that the results in experiments similar to the Stanford prison study are highly dependent on extreme situations and strong manipulation from leaders and researchers, but not in situations with high accountability and clear policies and rules. How so?

14. Observations Observational research is a group of different research methods where researchers try to observe a phenomenon without too much overt interference. Observational research is heavily used with social psychologist as a way of studying a group without affecting their behavior.

15. Observations Observation of behavior in a more or less natural setting, usually without any attempt to intervene (although in some cases intervention may be necessary). - Usually the situation is not manipulated or controlled by the investigator (unlike experiments). Why are observations particularly useful at the SCLOA?

16. Observations Observations allow us to see how people behave in natural social situations. However observations can be also be performed in labs through one-way mirrors eg. Bandura�s (1963) Bobo doll study of imitated aggression in young children, and Ainsworth�s (1967) Strange Situation attachment study of mother-and- child interactions. Observations (both overt and covert) also help psychologist to understand cultural differences. Observations usually are apart of a larger research method called ethnographic studies. How can observational research help us to better understand various cultures?

17. Understanding culture with naturalistic observations/ethnographic studies. Ethnographic research is a qualitative method aimed to learn and understand cultural phenomena which reflect the knowledge and system of meanings guiding the life of a cultural group. Originally used by anthropologist; psychologist are beginning to use this method because of its link to understanding culture and cultural norms. With the guiding principle that states; "Culture influences behavior�, psychologists have began to use ethnographic research methods to study cultural differences in order to better understand behavioral differences among various groups.

18. Understanding culture with naturalistic observations/ethnographic studies. The ethnographic approach emphasizes the understanding of behavior in context through the participation of the investigator in the situation being studied as an active member of the cultural group. It provides a descriptive report, utilizing a range of approaches, mainly informal interviews and observational techniques. The ethnographic approach has given psychologist a way of understanding cultural differences in a way that is not possible through controlled research experiments. How can this method help us understand cultural specific behavior better than experimental research?

19. Ethnographic studies in education Ethnography research is increasingly popular in education research. Ethnographic methods enable researchers to observe sociocultural differences in educational teaching strategies, student learning strategies, and student motivation for educational success. Read more: http://www bcf.usc.edu/~genzuk/Ethnographic_Research.html

20. Other research methods specifically used at SCLOA (as discussed in your IB packet) Survey and Questionnaires Interviews Cross-cultural studies

21. Objective 1.4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the sociocultural level of analysis.

22. Ethics are codes or rules which govern that practices of a research study. It dictates how information, and participant relationships should be managed. Code of ethics and the laws are mutually exclusive. An action may be legal but unethical. However some acts are both illegal and unethical. Ethical considerations occur when you are required to use these rules to better serve your participant in your research study.  Ethical Considerations

23. Ethical considerations specifically at the SCLOA usually involve human participants in real world settings (although controlled laboratory settings may be used for social experiments). The research usually involves both quantitative (experiments, surveys, etc.) and qualitative (case studies, interviews, overt/covert observations, etc.) research methods. Thus, ethical considerations are increasingly important at this level of analysis.  Ethical Considerations

24. Limit your essay in scope! You will not be able to discuss every ethical consideration at this level of analysis. You should carefully select ethical considerations (i.e. experimental ethics, observational study ethics) along with research examples to develop your response. Remember: general-specific-general. Strategies to developing your essay

25. Are well-informed about the purpose of the research they are being asked to participate in Understand the risks they may face as a result of being part of the research Understand the benefits that might accrue to them as a result of participating Feel free to make an independent decision without fear of negative consequences All researchers (conducting empirical research) are responsible for ensuring that participants:

26. In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous obedience experiment), was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behavior. The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethical Catastrophe or Scientific Breakthrough?

27. In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous obedience experiment), was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the impact of situational variables on human behavior. The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethical Catastrophe or Scientific Breakthrough?

28. The Stanford Prison Experiment is frequently cited as an example of unethical research. The experiment could not be replicated by researchers today because it fails to meet the standards established by numerous ethical codes, including the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association. Zimbardo acknowledges the ethical problems with the study, suggesting that "although we ended the study a week earlier than planned, we did not end it soon enough." The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethical Catastrophe or Scientific Breakthrough?

29. This study was originally cleared by the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, showing that experiments on paper can look very different from the way that they play out in reality. The experiment was criticized as being unethical and unscientific. Subsequently-adopted ethical standards of psychology would make it a breach of ethics to conduct such a study in more modern times. If carried out today, the study would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association. The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethical Catastrophe or Scientific Breakthrough?

30. Ethical issues that were breached in this study include the following: Informed consent Participants right to withdraw Protection from physical/mental The Stanford Prison Experiment: Ethical Catastrophe or Scientific Breakthrough?

31. Many research studies (such as Bandura�s Bobo Doll study) involve observational research methods. Observational research can be divided into multiple categories including Overt and Covert observations. Overt Observation: The participants of the group know that they are being observed by an experimenter. Usually requires the experimenter to gain the trust of the group they are observing so they speak more freely. Covert Observations: The researcher does not inform the participants that they are being observed. Although covert observations are the most beneficial, they raise the biggest ethical concern.   Considerations specifically at the SCLOA

32. Although covert participant observation is more likely to provide detailed portraits of contextualized social realities, it stirred much controversy and debate on research ethics, mainly regarding the deception and the absence of informed consent from the people being studied (Bulmer, 1980, 1982; Dingwall, 1980; M. L. Wax, 1979). However, they offer researchers access to information that is otherwise unavailable, and from a scientific perspective they offer the prospect of collecting objective data while minimizing Hawthorne effects and other biases.   Considerations specifically at the SCLOA

33. Protection of participants through the informed consent process favors formalized interaction between researcher and participant. Strength of qualitative research methods often lies in the informality of the communication as well as the iterative nature of the research process. How can we reconcile these two conflicting dynamics? Issues in Qualitative Research

34. Informed consent from all participants is required. Anonymity and confidentiality are guaranteed. Participants are protected from potential harm. Researchers are protected from potential harm. Four ethical considerations relevant to the unstructured features of qualitative research.

35. Purpose of the study The aim of your interview, case study, etc. Everything the participant is required to do. A step by step breakdown of what you want the participant to do. Potential risks and benefits from participation What are the possible threats that your participant may face? Any situation where participants might be identified or quoted. Voluntary participation Participation must always be voluntary. Any anticipated factors that might influence a person�s decision to participate. Informed consent (APA , 2011)

36. Any possible consequences of leaving the study before it ends. Loss of inducement, etc. Any inducements for participation (such as pay) How the data will be used. How to contact someone to find out the results of the study. Permission from parents for minors Informed consent (APA , 2011) cont.

37. Confidentiality and anonymity are related but distinct concepts. The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines confidentiality as: �spoken or written in confidence; charged with secrets� while anonymity is defined as: �of unknown name, of unknown authorship�. Confidentiality and Anonymity

38. To assure someone of confidentiality means that what has been discussed will not be repeated, or at least, not without permission. The notion of confidentiality (and anonymity) is invariably raised and discussed with research participants prior to their participation in research. These issues are usually discussed in the informed consent form. Confidentiality and Anonymity

39. In the research context, confidentiality (as it is commonly understood) makes little sense. Confidential research cannot be conducted; researchers have a duty to report on the findings of their research and they cannot do so if the data they collect is confidential (i.e. cannot be revealed). Confidentiality and Anonymity

40. What researchers can do is to ensure they do not disclose identifiable information about participants and to try to protect the identity of research participants through various processes designed to anonymize them. The extent to which anonymization is successful varies according to the research context. In this respect confidentiality cannot be assured; researchers can claim that they will endeavor to ensure to the best of their ability that participants are not able to be identified but they cannot promise that this will be the case. Confidentiality and Anonymity