The Sociology of Science

1. 15.1 The Sociology of Science

2. Introduction • Science: the pursuit of knowledge through systematic methods • Gains prominence over religious beliefs as the principal method by which to understand nature in the 1600 and 1700s • Interested in how the structure of society and the organization of science itself have affected scientific development • Socioilogy of science: sociological investigation of how scientific knowledge develops

3. The Institutionalization of Science in the West • The Birth of Science • Emerges as recognizable system of study in 300s B.C. • Plato and Aristotle in Greece • Mathematics, astronomy, biology, physics and medicine • Greek culture spreads during the Hellenistic Age- 300s to 100s B.C. • The decline of the Roman Empire slows the quest in Europe for scientific knowledge • The Catholic Church begins to grow in power and influence- people begin to turn to God for answers in times of trouble

4. The Institutionalization of Science in the West • People turn to philosophy and religion for explanations of the workings of the natural world • 1000 years pass before science remerges in Europe • The Rebirth of Science • The Renaissance: began in Italy in 1300s A.D. by-product of trade with the East. Italian merchants gain wealth and used their wealth to support the arts and learning

5. The Institutionalization of Science in the West • Printing Press: made production of books relatively inexpensive , which helped spread scientific knowledge; stimulate the desire for learning • Age of Exploration: 1400s to 1600s; European countries sail the oceans in search of routes East; encouraged science by placing importance on astronomy and mathematics needed to assist in navigation; explorers brought back plants, animals and diseases that sparked scientific curiosity

6. The Institutionalization of Science in the West • Protestant Reformation: question the idea that the power of religious salvation rested in the hands of the priests • argued people could find salvation through their own efforts • Emphasis on individualism lessened public resistance to scientific inquiry • Scientific revolution- redefined the nature of the universe, the methods of scientific research, and the functions of science • Scientists envision a world not controlled y divine spirits, but a universe operated according to a system of natural laws • Scientific method- objective and systematic way of collection information and arriving at conclusions • Enlightenment- revolution in social thought; supported reason over religious beliefs, main tools were scientific method and scientific fact; spread of democracy; created stat supported education systems

7. The Institutionalization of Science in the West • Modern Science • Late 1800s and 1900s becomes widely significant • Industrialization • Saw science as a tool towards progress; developing new technologies • Early 1900s modern organization of science begins • Specialization emerges: reinforced by the university system • Reinforces the idea of professionalization of science- employment in the sciences

8. The Norms of Scientific Research • Four Basic Norms of science • Universalism: scientific research should be judged solely on the basis of quality; scientists class, race, gender, nationality, or religion should not play a factor in how research findings are evaluated; open to everyone • Organized skepticism: no scientific theory or finding is exempt from questioning; helps to prevent stagnation and that theories are blindly accepted

9. The Norms of Scientific Research • Communalism: belief that scientific knowledge should be made available to everyone in the scientific community; findings belong to science as a whole not just individuals • Disinterestedness: should seek truth not personal gain; the goal is not rewards, political agendas or religious criteria, or not popular views

10. The Norms of Scientific Research • Counter norms • Follow when issues are not well-defined or controversial • Follow- particularism, organized dogmatism, solitariness, and interested approach

11. The Realities of Scientific Research • Fraud • Piltdown Hoax: Piltdown man was the “missing link” between apes and humans; later discoveries proved the Piltdown was a fraud • John Darsee: falsified data the formed the basis for at least 70 scientific articles on heart disease • Gallo vsMontagnier: both claim first to isolate a form of HIV

12. The Realities of Scientific Research • Competition • Fear of “beaten to the punch” • Potential for economic profit amplifies scientific discoveries • Rushing data- misinformation • The Matthew Effect- named by Merton for scientists who have not yet made their mark; recognition goes to scientists with the “bigger name”

13. The Realities of Scientific Research • Conflicting Views of Reality • Black Plague- the anger of God • Brotherhood of Flagellants- fundamentalist sect that whipped themselves to appease God • Looked for a scapegoat • Found the scapegoat in the Jews- persecuted unmercifully; driven from homes and burned to death; executed in mass hangings • Paradigm: set of shred concepts, methods, and assumptions that make up scientific reality at any point in time; Coined by Thomas Kuhn • Perceptions- political ideology and reluctance e to accept Western ideas greatly slowed scientific progress in many parts of the world