AP Terms

1. AP Terms Ethos Warrant Logos Organization Claims Grounds Pathos Ad Hominem Anaphora Antithesis Didactic Fallacy Mood Parallelism Periodic Polysyndeton Post-Hoc Reasoning Pun Style Syntax Warrant AP Terms/Second Week

2. The Three Classical Appeals When analyzing someone else’s argument or constructing your own, always ask yourself these questions:  Who is the speaker?  Who is the speaker or author’s intended audience? How do I know who the audience is?  How has the audience influenced the speaker or author’s choice of argumentative strategies? The Three Classical Appeals Include: • Ethos • Logos • Pathos AP Terms/Second Week

3. The Three Classical Appeals Ethos (Ethical) - Ethical appeals depend on the credibility or training of the author. Audiences tend to believe writers who seem honest, wise, and trustworthy. An author or speaker exerts ethical appeal when the language itself impresses the audience that the speaker is a person of intelligence, high moral character and good will. Thus a person wholly unknown to an audience can by words alone win that audience’s trust and approval. Aristotle emphasized the importance of impressing upon the audience that the speaker is a person of good sense and high moral character. AP Terms/Second Week

4. The Three Classical Appeals When you write, you can develop your own “ethos” as a writer by using many strategies. Here are just a few: Using Scholarly Language Researching your topic Providing Credible Evidence Writing Well/Proofing for Errors Stating why you are qualified to write about the topic. Showing many sides/shades of the argument. AP Terms/Second Week

5. Recognizing Ethos… • How would you find evidence of an author’s appeal to Ethos? Take a few minutes to write down some strategies. • What have you read before that you thought didn’t have any “credibility”? AP Terms/Second Week

6. Logos… • Logos (Logical): Loosely defined, logos refers to the use of logic, reasons, facts, statistics, data, and numbers. Logical appeals are aimed at the mind of the audience, their thinking side.  Very often, logos seems tangible and touchable.  When a speaker or writer uses logical appeals, he or she will avoid inflammatory language, and the writer will carefully connect its reasons to supporting evidence. Ask yourself why the author or speaker is using logos? AP Terms/Second Week

7. Logos…Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal: • logical reasons why your audience should believe you (keep in mind that not all reasons are equally persuasive for all audiences). • evidence that proves or explains your reasons • facts–using information that can be checked by testing, observing firsthand, or reading reference materials to support an opinion. AP Terms/Second Week

8. Logos…Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal: • statistics–percentages, numbers, and charts to highlight significant data  • expert opinion––statements by people who are recognized as authorities on the subject.  • examples-giving examples that support each reason • use of cause and effect, compare and contrast, and analogy AP Terms/Second Week

9. Pathos • Pathos (Emotional): Arguments from the heart are designed to appeal to audience’s emotions and feelings.  Emotions can direct people in powerful ways to think more carefully about what they do.  In hearing or reading an argument that is heavy on emotional appeals, ask yourself these questions: • How is the speaker or author appealing to the audience’s emotions? Why? • Always try to name the emotions being appealed to (love, sympathy, anger, fear, hate, patriotism, compassion) and figure out how the emotion is being created in the audience. • After you name the appeal, state what effect this appeal has on the tone, mood, argument, etc. AP Terms/Second Week

10. Pathos Emotional appealsare often just examples—ones chosen to awaken specific feelings in an audience.  Although frequently abused, the emotional appealis a legitimate aspect of argument, for speakers and authors want their audience to care about the issues they address. AP Terms/Second Week

11. Pathos Here are some, but not all, techniques that are used in this type of appeal: • moving stories and anecdotesthat prove your opinion • using emotional language or “catchy words” to appeal to people’ s values or guilty consciences or vivid description. • slantingis omitting or not using information that may conflict with or weaken the author’s opinion. • predicting extreme outcomes of events/dire predication in order to create a sense ofurgency • specific examples/charged words AP Terms/Second Week

12. Organization… ORGANIZATION • Organization is critical because without it, the reader will lose sight of the main issue or argument. The most common method of organization is (1) State a thesis that is the opening statement of the author’s opinion or position on an issue. (2) Support that point of view with more than one argument and solid evidence (3) Give a summary of the writer’s argument – ending perhaps with a call to action. AP Terms/Second Week

13. Organization… Other methods of organizing persuasive writing include: • State a thesis then refute it • State a thesis, refute the other side, and then support your side with evidence • Suggest possibilities and dismiss all but one • Pose a problem and solve it • Form a hypothesis and test its implications • Tell a story that has a strong argument • Narrate several unrelated episodes and link them in a surprising way AP Terms/Second Week

14. The Other Side… THE OTHER SIDE • When writing a persuasive essay, you need to look at the other side of your issue. There are two possible ways to do this: refute and concede-counter. To refute an argument is to succeed in disproving it. It is not simply to argue against. A concede-counter gives in to one or two points on the other side and then refuting the stance of the opposition. Does your essay acknowledge the opposition and provide evidence to refute that opposition? AP Terms/Second Week

15. Claim and Grounds A claim is the point an arguer is trying to make. The claim is the proposition or assertion an arguer wants another to accept. • The claim answers the question, "So what is your point?" • ex: "You should send a birthday card to Mimi, because she sent you one on your birthday." • example: "I drove last time, so this time it is your turn to drive." AP Terms/Second Week

16. Claim and Grounds Three basic types of claims: • fact: claims which focus on empirically verifiable phenomena • judgment/value: claims involving opinions, attitudes, and subjective evaluations of things • policy: claims advocating courses of action that should be undertaken AP Terms/Second Week

17. Grounds Grounds refers to the proof or evidence an arguer offers.   Grounds answers the questions, "What is your proof?" or "How come?" or "Why?" • Grounds can consist of statistics, quotations, reports, findings, physical evidence, or various forms of reasoning. • example: "It looks like rain. The barometer is falling." • example: "The other Howard Johnson's restaurants I've been in had clean restrooms, so I'll bet this one has clean restrooms too." AP Terms/Second Week

18. Warrant… • The warrant is the inferential leap that connects the claim with the grounds. • The warrant is typically implicit (unstated) and requires the listener to recognize the underlying reasoning that makes sense of the claim in light of the grounds. • The warrant performs a "linking" function by establishing a mental connection between the grounds and the claim AP Terms/Second Week

19. Warrant… • example: "Muffin is running a temperature. I'll bet she has an infection." warrant: sign reasoning; a fever is a reliable sign of an infection • example: "That dog is probably friendly. It is a Golden Retriever." warrant: generalization; most or all Golden Retrievers are friendly AP Terms/Second Week

20. Warrant… Warrants can be based on: • ethos: source credibility, authority • logos: reason-giving, induction, deduction • pathos: emotional or motivational appeals • shared values: free speech, right to know, fairness, etc. • note: these categories aren't mutually exclusive, there is considerable overlap among the three. AP Terms/Second Week

21. Logical Fallacies Post-Hoc Reasoning A logical fallacy that involves looking back at two events that occurred in chronological sequence and wrongly assuming that the first event caused the second. "A black cat crossed my path at noon. An hour later, my mother had a heart-attack. Because the first event occurred earlier, it must have caused the bad luck later." This is how superstitions begin. AP Terms/Second Week

22. Ad Hominem • An argument attacking an individual’s character rather than his or her position on an issue. • Also called "Poisoning the Well"): Attacking or praising the people who make an argument, rather than discussing the argument itself. This practice is fallacious because the personal character of an individual is logically irrelevant to the truth or falseness of the argument itself. The statement "2+2=4" is true regardless if is stated by criminals, congressmen, or pastors. AP Terms/Second Week

23. Polysyndeton • “How all the other passions fleet to air, As doubtful thoughts, and rash-embrac’d despair, and shuddering fear, and green-ey’d jealousy.” The use, for rhetorical effect, of more conjunctions than is necessary or natural. AP Terms/Second Week

24. Polysyndeton “And Joshua, and all Israel with him, took Achan the son of Zerah, and the silver, and the garment, and the wedge of gold, and his sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tent, and all that he had. AP Terms/Second Week

25. Anaphora Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginnings of successive clauses. • “The Lord sitteth above the water floods. The Lord remaineth a King forever. The Lord shall give strength unto his people. The Lord shall give his people of blessing of peace.” • Psalm 29 AP Terms/Second Week

26. Antithesis • Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction. • *Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice, moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue. Barry Goldwater • *Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. Shakespeare, Julius Caesar • *The vases of the classical period are but the reflection of classical beauty; the vases of the archaic period are beauty itself." Sir John Beazley • *Demosthenes, Olynthiac 2.26 AP Terms/Second Week

27. Zeugma • Zeugma: two different words linked to a verb or an adjective which is strictly appropriate to only one of them. • *Nor Mars his sword, nor war's quick fire shall burnThe living record of your memory.

28. Zeugma • Who sees with equal eye, as God of all,A hero perish, or a sparrow fall,Atoms or systems into ruin hurled,And now a bubble burst, and now a world."(Alexander Pope, Essay on Man) • "Kill all the poys [boys] and luggage!"(Fluellen in William Shakespeare's Henry V) • "You are free to execute your laws, and your citizens, as you see fit."(Star Trek: The Next Generation)

29. Syllepsis • Syllepsis: use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently. • *We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately. Benjamin Franklin • I live in shame and the suburbs • When I address Fred I never have to raise either my voice or my hopes."(E.B. White, "Dog Training") • "We consumers like names that reflect what the economy does. We know, for example, that International Business Machines makes business machines; and Ford Motors makes Fords; and Sara Lee makes us fat."(Dave Barry, "Dave's World," April 8, 2001)

30. Didactic Having the primary purpose of teaching or instructing. • Examples include: • Alexander Pope An Essay on Criticism • John Locke An Essay Concerning Human Understanding • Aristotle Rhetoric AP Terms/Second Week

31. Mood The emotional atmosphere of a work AP Terms/Second Week

32. Style The choices a writer makes; the combination of distinctive features of a literary work. AP Terms/Second Week

33. Anaphora * the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines. We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. Churchill. AP Terms/Second Week

34. Pun • The pun, or paronomasia, is a form of word play which exploits numerous meanings of a statement, allowing it to be understood in multiple ways for an intended humorous or rhetorical effect AP Terms/Second Week

35. Pun • Captain Aubrey: "Do you see those two weevils, Doctor?...Which would you choose?" • Dr. Maturin: "Neither. There's not a scrap of difference between them. They're the same species of Curculio." • Captain Aubrey: "If you had to choose. If you were forced to make a choice. If there were no other option." • Dr. Maturin: "Well, then, if you're going to push me. I would choose the right-hand weevil. It has significant advantage in both length and breadth." • Captain Aubrey: "There, I have you!...Do you not know that in the Service, one must always choose the lesser of two weevils?" AP Terms/Second Week