Criminal Justice Organizations: Administration and Management

1. Criminal Justice Organizations: Administration and Management Chapter 15 Research in Criminal Justice Organizations Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

2. Learning Objectives Know the difference between basic and applied research Understand the ways in which knowledge is utilized by criminal justice organizations Describe the nature of social science research and knowledge utilization Describe the limitations of data within criminal justice organizations Define “In-House Research” and how it can be useful to criminal justice organizations Know the various ways of conceptualizing and applying knowledge Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

3. Introduction Social scientists must be able to respond to the needs of practitioners. They argue that working together emphasizes both process and product and is most likely to produce useful knowledge. Many researchers view criminal justice as an applied field in which studies should be designed in a way to influence practice. The National Institute of Justice has begun emphasizing the importance of partnerships between academics and criminal justice agencies. CHAPTER 15

4. Terms BASIC RESEARCH-- seeks to understand fundamental issues of process and structure in ways that may not immediately be useful to practitioners (e.g. the causes of crime, the nature of social control, prison social structure). APPLIED RESEARCH-- attempts to develop knowledge that is directly useful to practitioners (e.g. preventive patrol strategies, use of force variables, policy issues). CHAPTER 15

5. Criminal Justice OrganizationKnowledge Utilization • Lovell (1988) found very little concrete use of research information by practitioners. • Research is more readily used in organizations that • Actively conduct their own research • When management is less crisis oriented • Are less formal, and • Encourage decentralized decision making. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

6. The ResearcherKnowledge Utilization • Practitioners must be convinced that research finding are relevant to the problems they face: • Researchers can encourage the use of research by remaining focused on practitioner needs. • Dissemination should be through ‘approachable’ media and formats. • Practitioners must be convinced of the value of research information. • Researchers and practitioners view the data and results differently. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

7. Social Science Research Knowledge Utilization • Researchers should be cautious about influencing public policy. • The available research is limited. • Most of the available research is not definitive enough to authoritatively influence public policy. • The results from single studies, regardless of how definitive they may seem, are not enough to justify wholesale policy change. • Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment • Ceasefire, COMPSTAT and Exile Projects Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

8. The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment • The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment (MDVE) evaluated the effectiveness of various police responses to domestic violence calls in Minneapolis, Minnesota. • This experiment was implemented during 1981-82 by Lawrence W. Sherman, Director of Research at the Police Foundation, and by the Minneapolis Police Department with funding support from the National Institute of Justice.[1] Among a pool of domestic violence offenders for whom there was probable cause to make an arrest, the study design called for officers to randomly select one third of the offenders for arrest, one third would be counseled and one third would be separated from their domestic partner. • The results of the study, showing a deterrent effect for arrest, had a "virtually unprecedented impact in changing then-current police practices." • Subsequently, numerous states and law enforcement agencies enacted policies for mandatory arrest, without warrant, for domestic violence cases in which the responding police officer had probable cause that a crime had occurred. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

9. The Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment • Send the abuser away for eight hours. • Advice and mediation of disputes. • Make an arrest. • Arrest was found to be the most effective police response. • The study found that the offenders assigned to be arrested had lower rates of re-offending than offenders assigned to counseling or temporarily sent away. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

10. Project Exile • Project Exile was a federal program started in Richmond, Virginia in 1997. Project Exile shifted the prosecution of illegal technical gun possession offenses to federal court, where they carried a mandatory minimum sentence of five years in federal prison under the federal Gun Control Act of 1968, rather than in state court. • Project Exile, which was confined to Richmond and surrounding areas, has since been supplanted by Virginia Exile, the Commonwealth's statewide program which carries bail restrictions and imposes a mandatory minimum sentence of five years in a Virginia prison for those who: • have a prior conviction for a violent felony and are convicted of possessing a firearm; • are convicted of possessing a firearm on school property with the intent to use it, or displaying it in a threatening manner; • are convicted of possessing a firearm and Schedule I or II drugs such as cocaine or heroin, or convicted of possessing more than a pound of marijuana with the intent to sell. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

11. Operation Ceasefire • Operation Ceasefire (also known as the Boston Gun Project) is a youth gun violence intervention strategy, first implemented in 1996 in Boston. The plan is based on the work of David M. Kennedy. •  Operation Ceasefire entailed a problem-oriented policing approach, and focused on specific places that were crime hot spots. Focus was placed on two elements of the gun violence problem, including illicit gun trafficking and gang violence. • Results: Within two years of implementing Operation Ceasefire in Boston, the number of youth homicides dropped to ten, with one handgun-related youth homicide occurring in 1999 and 2000.Youth homicides later climbed again with 37 in 2005 and reaching a peak of 52 in 2010. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

12. DataKnowledge Utilization • National trend data may not be relevant to local issues. • Survey and summary data cannot be used to determine causality. • Criminal justice data, for the most part, is often inaccurate, incomplete and untimely. • Administrators should have the discipline to seek valid (accurate) and reliable (consistent) measures of social phenomena. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

13. The Researcher and Knowledge Utilization Some effective uses of research can be found: 1. The National Institute of Corrections has successfully used academics and practitioners in providing technical assistance for prisons and jails. 2. The National Council on Crime and Delinquency has formed effective relationships between researchers and practitioners as states have struggled with how to project prison population growth and address crowding. CHAPTER 15

14. The Nature of Social Science Research and Knowledge Utilization A major consequence of taking research seriously is that doing so opens up the policy process for critical examination. 1. Data take policy out of the realm of simple preferences or untested assumptions. 2. A commitment to research is a commitment to defending policy choices as rational. CHAPTER 15

15. In-House Research • The development of the capacity within organizations to address their own data and research needs. • Often exists in separate and stand alone units. • In house research tends to be more readily accepted by practitioners if: • Their research role is well defined, and • The credibility is based on technical expertise rather than position power. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

16. The Nature of Social Science Research and Knowledge Utilization Some academics question whether social science research has reached a level of sophistication sufficient to merit influencing public policy. Elliot contends that: 1. high-quality studies are still few in number 2. little data on criminal justice have been collected over a long enough period of time to ensure confident conclusions CHAPTER 15

17. Knowledge as Truth • In research, data are often viewed merely as recorded observations. • Research knowledge is both rational and objective. • The use of research knowledge by practitioners may be influenced by • Politics • Budget concerns Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

18. Knowledge as Power • Because research is considered objective, research results can be used as a ‘weapon’ to • Affect change, or • Cause an agency to adopt a new policy • This sometimes causes managers to discourage research. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

19. Knowledge as Understanding • Research can be used to develop deeper understandings of social phenomena. • Normative re-education strategies – impetus for change comes from collaboration rather than research • Action research – using research to effect specific change • Involvement in research tends to encourage the acceptance of its findings. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

20. Normative re-education strategies This is defined as a strategy that believes “the norms of the organization's interaction-influence system (attitudes, beliefs, and values”--in other words, culture) can be deliberately shifted to more productive norms by collaborative action of the people Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

21. Four Basic Change Management Strategies • Empirical-Rational • People are rational and will follow their self-interest — once it is revealed to them. Change is based on the communication of information and the proffering of incentives. • Normative-Reeducative • People are social beings and will adhere to cultural norms and values. Change is based on redefining and reinterpreting existing norms and values, and developing commitments to new ones. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

22. Four Basic Change Management Strategies • Power-Coercive • People are basically compliant and will generally do what they are told or can be made to do. Change is based on the exercise of authority and the imposition of sanctions. • Environmental-Adaptive • People oppose loss and disruption but they adapt readily to new circumstances. Change is based on building a new organization and gradually transferring people from the old one to the new one. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

23. Knowledge and Research Partnerships • In recent years criminal justice organization have entered into cooperative agreements with researchers (e.g. universities) to either create or supplement their capacity to conduct research. • These strategies are helpful if the dynamics of the partnership are well defined. • There need to be collaborative relationships in organizations in which managers, workers and researchers came together to understand the need for change. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

24. Knowledge and Failure • Research reduces the probability of policy failure, but does not eliminate it. • Failure should not however be considered wholly bad. • Often the most innovative research findings originate from failures. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

25. Knowledge and Failure • Learning from failure • Administrators should be self-reflective. • Define success more broadly • Purely rational solutions are not likely • Modesty can be virtuous. • Politics and criminal justice reform/practice cannot be separated. • Planning in isolation is a mistake. • Program implementation and context matter in criminal justice. • Involving line personnel is essential. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

26. Advances in Criminal Justice Research • Three trends • Growing use of data in the field • Increased interest in outcome based research among academics • Federal support for data based decision making • Programmatic trends • Problem oriented policing • Enhanced crime analysis and intelligence activities • Intelligence led policing Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

27. KnowledgeThe Future of Criminal Justice Administration • Three themes addressed in this textbook. • To focus on what we know about criminal justice organizations from multiple perspectives • A systematic focus when viewing criminal justice administration • An understanding of criminal justice administration through the integration of theory Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

28. Knowledge and the Future of Criminal Justice Administration 1. The criminal justice system will place greater emphasis on the creation of appropriate knowledge, data, and information to address crime. 2. Public groups, private concerns, and the government itself will expect criminal justice administrators to do things in a different way. CHAPTER 15

29. Knowledge and the Future of Criminal Justice Administration 4. This increased accountability will bring greater concern for how criminal justice administrators are recruited, selected, and retained. 5. Twenty-first century criminal justice administrator will function under: a. greater expectations b. fewer resources c. recurrent questions of effectiveness and efficiency CHAPTER 15

30. TQM • W. Edwards Deming-- called the founder of Total Quality Management (TQM). He helped build the Japanese style of management following WWII. U.S. caught on in 80s & 90s. • Reliance on data-based analysis and teamwork to define and solve problems • Knowledge is the key component of TQM. CHAPTER 15

31. Total Quality Management TQM is a management philosophy as opposed to an organizational structure TQM is meant to be integrated into an existing organizational structure, and it can be used in any type of structure TQM is a management orientation that ensures that the organization and its members are committed to continuous improvement and to completely meeting customer needs Chapter 5

32. Total Quality Management • “TQM is a management approach for an organization, centered on quality, based on the participation of all its members and aiming at long-term success through customer satisfaction, and benefits to all members of the organization and to society.” • In short, all members of an organization are expected to participate in improving processes, products, services and the culture in which they work Chapter 5

33. Total Quality Management • If an organization is to achieve maximum effectiveness, it must ensure that its products and services are of the highest quality • This entails that management closely examine its service or product delivery system and ensure that it operates with “quality” as the overarching objective. Chapter 5

34. Total Quality Management: Total Quality • Total qualityis called total because it consists of three qualities: • Quality of return to satisfy the needs of the shareholders • Quality of products and services to satisfy some specific needs of the consumer (end customer) • Quality of life —at work and outside work—to satisfy the needs of the people in the organization Chapter 5

35. Ten Steps to TQM Management Pursue New Strategic Thinking Know your Customers Set True Customer Requirements Concentrate on Prevention, Not Correction Reduce Chronic Waste Pursue a Continuous Improvement Strategy Use Structured Methodology for Process Improvement Reduce Variation Use a Balanced Approach Apply to All Functions Chapter 5

36. Principles of TQM Quality can and must be managed Everyone has a customer and is a supplier Processes, not people are the problem Every employee is responsible for quality Problems must be prevented, not just fixed Quality must be measured Quality improvements must be continuous The quality standard is defect free Chapter 5

37. Principles of TQM Goals are based on requirements, not negotiated Life cycle costs, not front end costs Management must be involved and lead Plan and organize for quality improvement Chapter 5

38. Processes must be Managed and Improved Defining the process Measuring process performance (metric) Reviewing process performance Identifying process shortcomings Analyzing process problems Making a process change Measuring the effects of the process change Communicating both ways between supervisor and user Chapter 5

39. Implementation of TQM In Law Enforcement: Develop better mechanisms for gathering information about client or citizen satisfaction Do a better job of tracking and evaluating performance Work toward continuous improvement rather than reacting to crises Attempt to implement higher levels of participatory management throughout the police organization Chapter 5

40. Intelligence-led Policing The most common mistake is to consider “intelligence” as synonymous with “information.” Information is not intelligence. Despite the many definitions of “intelligence” that have been promulgated over the years, the simplest and clearest of these is “information plus analysis equals intelligence.” Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

41. Tactical Intelligence Versus Strategic Intelligence The distinction between tactical and strategic intelligence is often misconstrued. Tactical intelligence contributes directly to the success of specific investigations. Strategic intelligence deals with “big-picture” issues, such as planning and manpower allocation.3 Tactical intelligence directs immediate action, whereas strategic intelligence evolves over time and explores long-term, large-scope solutions. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

42. Chapter Summary • Two types of research • Basic concerned with fundamental uses of process and structure to understand a phenomenon • Applied research – the use of knowledge that directly impacts practitioners and policy • Criminal justice organizations use knowledge in three ways • Instrumental • Symbolic • Conceptual • Researchers are concerned with statistical averages as a way to comprehend the typical. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

43. Chapter Summary Practitioners emphasize the atypical in understanding organizational responses to crime. Researchers must be careful in how the influence public policy, as definitive answers to crime may be ambiguous and not readily apparent. Practitioners should use research to inform but not drive policy. Criminal justice data tends to be crude. More valid and reliable variables are needed. In-house research means the capacity of an organization to develop its own data and research needs. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

44. Thinking Point and Question After several years of discussion and negotiation with the police officers union and elected officials your department has just implemented a four-ten shift schedule. This schedule allows police officers to work four consecutive ten hour days and then enjoy a three day weekend every week. The new shift schedule was very favorably received and was implemented without incident. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

45. Thinking Point and Question A few months later the Chief of Police attended a training session hosted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police. At this session a widely respected psychologist reported on his research about the effects of a four-ten work week on police officer productivity and stress. He finds that four-ten shifts reduce overall productivity and increase stress related disease (e.g. hypertension and heart disease). Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations

46. Thinking Point and Question The Chief regards the research as credible and asks you to “take a look at it and make any recommendations.” Given what you learned in this chapter how would you advise the chief? Explain why. Chapter 15 - Research in Criminal Justice Organizations