The Unification of Germany

2. The Unification of Germany

3. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars, 1789-1815 • Exported the principles of liberty, equality and brotherhood (Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité) • Broke the power of the old Monarchical regimes and states in Central Europe. • Saw the emergence of the idea of ‘Nationalism’ – the term first appeared in the writings of the Jesuit AbbéBarruel in 1798 • ‘The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars witnessed the first upsurge of Nationalism in European history, partly under the inspiration of the French armies and message of liberation, partly in reaction against those armies and the realities of occupation and oppression.’ • Robert Gildea, Barricades and Borders: Europe 1800-1914 (Oxford: OUP, 1996)

4. Prior to Unity: • Before the process of German unification began, German speaking people lived in small, separate states, as well as in the Austrian Hapsburg Empire, and in Prussia. • When Napoleon began his invasions throughout Europe in 1807, many territorial changes throughout the German states were made. This is the area in through which the German states were spread in 1800

5. Napoleon Impacts Germany: • Between 1807 and 1812, Napoleon made major changes to the territorial states of Germany. • As a French leader at the time, he gained a number of European lands and put many German -speaking states under French rule. (In red) • Many Germans welcomed him because they liked his policies. But soon, extreme German nationalism arose!!!

6. German Nationalism: • German nationalism slowly began to show in the early 1800’s. • Germany was divided into a number of small states and desired a unification within them. • Their goal was to become completely independent out of the control of all other nations as they had been in the past.

7. Effects on Germany • German nationalists, liberals and Romantics initially welcomed the French revolution and saw the French armies as liberators. • 1805: Defeat of Austria at the Battle of Austerlitz • 1806: Defeat of Prussia at the twin battles of Jena & Auerstadt • Napoleonic re-ordering of Germany: • Holy Roman Empire abolished • Number of states reduced to 39 • Puppet rulers installed in German states • Confederation of the Rhine formed • French legal system imposed • Napoleon’s German campaigns and the experience of occupation turned popular and liberal nationalist sentiment against Napoleon.

8. What is a Nation? • Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803): The Volk (‘nation’ or ‘race’) is the decisive determinant of human identity. • The nation is therefore identified not with the state (which is an artificial body), but with the ‘organic body’ of the Volk. • Johann Goethe (1749-1832): No need for a nation-state – Germany was a ‘cultural community’ like Ancient Greece. • Geog Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831): An individual only achieved their full potential through service to the state. • German nationalism based on the idea of a racial/cultural community with shared language, history, traditions, myths etc.

9. “A nation can therefore be defined as a named human population sharing an historic territory, common myths and historical memories, a mass public culture, a common economy and common legal rights and duties for all members.” Anthony D. Smith, National Identity (Reno, Las Vegas, London) 1991, p. 14.

10. The Congress of Vienna, 1814-15 • Restored deposed monarchs to their thrones and sought to re-establish the ancien régime in Europe. • Granted Prussia extensive territory in the Rhineland – the population of the Kingdom of Prussia doubled overnight. • Established the German Confederation.

11. Congress of Vienna: • People began to demand a unified German state more and more as German Nationalism increased due to Napoleon’s invasion. • Many German Nationalists brought their demands to the Congress of Vienna. An Austrian politician, Clemens von Metternich, opposed these demands and stated that joining the governments of the many separated states would be extremely tricky. Instead, the group formed a German Confederation, which was a very weak body headed by Austria.

13. Background • Germany was the last of the great European powers to achieve complete political unity • 1815 – 39 independent German states stretched from north to south and east to west • Austria and Prussia were the most powerful of these German states • Germany was divided and economically disadvantaged • Antagonisms between Protestant and Catholic states ran deep

14. Steps Toward Unity • The Congress of Vienna had created the German Confederation in 1815 as a buffer against possible future French expansion • This established closer economic ties between the German states and helped pave the way for political union • The Confederation was loosely tied together with a diet, or assembly, sitting at Frankfurt

15. GERMAN CONFEDERATION 1815 - 1866

16. The German Confederation • Made up of 39 German States • Designed to help preserve the status quo rather than as a basis for a United Germany. • The Austrian Chancellor Metternich saw it as a means of preserving Austrian dominance over Germany. • The Federal Diet (parliament) met at Frankfurt and was made up of (unelected) representatives of all the states. • It was always chaired by the Austrian representative. • In theory the Diet could appoint ambassadors, negotiate treaties on behalf of members and organize a Federal Army. • In practice little was ever done because the unanimous agreement of all 39 states was required.

17. The German Confederation • Replaced the Holy Roman Empire • Loose political association of German states • Most of the power remained in the hands of the individual German sovereigns • No central executive or judiciary • Diet met in Frankfurt to consider joint legislation

18. A DIVIDED GERMANY • Loose federation of 39 States • Controlled by 2 Powers • Austria – Hapsburgs • Prussia Hohenzollern

19. Where is Germany? • Both The Kingdom of Prussia and the Austrian Empire incorporated territory outside the German Confederation and non-German citizens. • Grossdeutschland(Greater Germany) – would incorporate the German-speaking parts of the Austrian Empire and would maintain Catholic Austria’s leadership of Germany. • Kleindeutschland (Little Germany) – would exclude Austria but include the whole of Prussia (including her ‘Polish’ territories), leaving Protestant Prussia as the dominant German state.

20. Opposing Ideas • Grossdeutschland • A Germany including the Austrian Empire • Kleindeutschland • A Germany excluding the Austrian Empire

21. Steps Toward Unity • Austria dominated the Confederation • The position as head of the diet eventually brought it into conflict with Prussia • Austria and the smaller German states did not want a united Germany • Austria feared the economic competition • The smaller states feared domination by Prussia

22. Prussia • The largest of the German states • Had a well-organized government and a strong economy • Political power lay in the hands of the influential aristocratic landowners called Junkers • Members of the rising business class demanded a share of political power

23. Prussian Flag of the Second Reich

24. Prussia Enters the Picture: • Prussia, a great rival to Austria, took over the German states in the 1830’s. • Trying to create an economic union, they took away borders between the German states. • They still remained politically separate though. • At the Frankfurt Assembly in 1848, liberals offered the throne to a united Germany to the Prussian king, but they were refused. Germany remained divided but still had a desire for unity.

25. The Zollverein • Prussian Tariff Reform Law (1818): Designed to protect Prussian industry from cheap imports & break down internal barriers to free trade. • 1818-34: Prussia tried to encourage free trade within Germany by forming customs unions with neighbouring states. • By 1836 the Prussian Customs Union (Zollverein) was made up of 25 states with a population of 26 million. • Trade barriers & customs duties between members were abolished and there were moves towards standardization of weights and measures and currency.

26. The Zollverein

28. Steps Toward Unity • German states formed a Zollverein, an economic union, in 1834 • This reduced trade barriers • This step toward unity strengthened the influence of Prussia and weakened Austria • In 1848 power in the German states shifted to the liberals • Delegates met in the Frankfurt Assembly to unite the country under a liberal constitution

29. Revolutions of 1848 • Nationalism reaches ascendancy • German revolutions result in Frankfurt Parliament • Call for unified Germany • Austria said it would oppose a centralized government in Germany • Prussian king offered the crown of the unified German Empire

30. The Revolutions of 1848 • Causes: Economic Crisis (1846-47) Demographic change (growing population, urbanization etc.) Poor harvests leading to famine Cholera epidemic Dissatisfaction with conservative political climate • 24 Feb. 1848: Revolution in France – King Louis Philippe overthrown and a Republic established. • 13 March: Demonstrations in Vienna lead to the fall of Metternich • 24 October: The Austrian Emperor Ferdinand (1835-48) abdicates in favour of his nephew Franz Josef (1848-1916). • 13 March: Prussian troops fire on demonstrators in the palace square in Berlin, leading to 2 days of rioting • 16 March: News of Metternich’s fall reaches Berlin. King Friedrich Wilhelm IV (1840-61) agrees in principle to a new constitution, parliament and an end to censorship. • 18 March: More fighting in Berlin – at least 300 rioters killed by the Army. • 21 March: Friedrich Wilhelm grants a series of reforms including the appointment of a liberal ministry. • August-November: The Prussian King reasserts his control. Martial Law is introduced in November and the liberal constitution and parliament overturned.

31. The Frankfurt Parliament • 5 March 1848: The Heidelberg Declaration: calls for a single German state governed by a united German parliament. • 31 March: 574 representatives from the German states met in Frankfurt to agree on what form the new German parliament would take (the Vorparlament). • After elections in April the parliament met in Frankfurt in May 1848. It was largely made up of liberal middle-class professionals (teachers, lawyers etc.) and was moderate in character. • The Assembly soon became bogged down in debate over what form a united Germany should take and how it should be governed. • June: A provisional government led by the Habsburg Archduke John was elected, but it had no real power and an ill-defined role. • March 1849: A Constitution for a united German Empire agreed and the Imperial crown was offered to the King of Prussia, who refused it. The rulers of Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover also rejected the Constitution. • May 1849: The parliament expelled from Frankfurt and moved to Stuttgart. • June 1849: The parliament forcibly broken up by the King of Württemberg’ s troops.

32. Proposed German Unification • Proposed country was one in which the parliament would have considerable power • With limitation of the royal prerogative, Frederick William IV of Prussia turns down the offer of the throne • Was opposed to any limitations on royal power • Frankfurt Parliament disbands

33. Steps Toward Unity • The liberals were weakened by internal feuding • This allowed conservatives to regain control • In 1849 the Prussian military forced the Assembly’s closure • Many liberal and radical Germans fled abroad • During the 1850s conservatives in Germany came to control nationalist causes

34. Results of Revolutions • A reactionary return • Those who defied royal power were punished • Many reforms granted due to revolutionary violence were abrogated

35. Signs of Things to Come • Frederick William IV of Prussia suffers a breakdown • Brother, William takes the regency • Announces reform • Government turns away from reactionary politics

36. The Development of Prussia • Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade & railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858. • 1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but not political) reform. • 1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm becomes regent.

37. Frederick William IV

38. William I

39. Wilhelm I (1861-1858) • Born in 1797 in Berlin • A soldier by training and a conservative by instinct • Fought against Napoleon in the Wars of Liberation & Waterloo Campaign • Staunch opponent of Revolution • A devout Protestant, he believed that he was answerable only to God.

40. William or Wilhelm I • German conservatives looked to Prussia for help in uniting Germany • In 1861 William I became king of Prussia • William was opposed to liberal ideas • He took steps to expand the Prussian army • Liberal nationalists saw no need for a strong military • They wanted the king to adopt democratic policies to gain support from the other German states • Liberal deputies in the Prussian assembly overwhelmingly defeated new taxes to support a larger army

41. The Development of Prussia • Economic boom in the 1850s: industrial production, foreign trade & railway building all doubled between 1851 and 1858. • 1850-58: Minister-President Otto von Manteuffel pursued a policy of trying to bolster support for the monarchy through limited social (but not political) reform. • 1858: Friedrich Wilhelm IV declared insane and his brother Wilhelm becomes regent. • 1858: The ‘New Era’ – Wilhelm appoints a mixed ministry of liberals and conservatives and the Liberals gain 55% of the seats in the Prussian Diet. • 1860: Army Reform Bill • 1860-1862: Constitutional Conflict. • 1862: Otto von Bismarck appointed Minister-President.

42. Signs of Things to Come • 1859 • France and Piedmont defeat Austria in the Northern Italian War • Maintenance of authoritarian regime in Vienna relied upon respect for military prowess • Shaken by defeat • Popular unrest grows throughout the empire • To hold back unrest Franz Josef agrees to a constitution that establishes a parliament

43. 1859

44. Franz Josef of Austria

45. Realpolitik in Prussia • Change in attitude of liberals • Came to feel that their defeat ten years before was due to idealism and exuberance • Fatal mistake was assumption that enthusiasm and selflessness could be translated into power and substituted for statesmanship

46. Realpolitik in Prussia • Theory and rhetoric would not work • Negotiation and compromise would lead to unity and freedom • Hoped that giving the king sufficient time, he would lead them to where they wanted to be • Parliamentary government • Liberty

47. Conflict • Progressive Party founded • Pushed for increased liberalization of the government • King thought he was being pushed too far • Became more adamant and uncompromising • King and Progressive Party waited for an issue to fight over

48. Army Reforms • King wanted to increase the number of regular army regiments and decrease the militia • Parliament demanded a modification of the plan • Did not want an increase in the power of the conservative officer corps • King refused • Believed that parliament was trying to gain control of the royal army

49. Otto von Bismarck

50. The less people know about how sausages and laws are made, the better they'll sleep at night. -- Otto von Bismarck