Frequency effects in lenition and the challenge of lexicalized markedness

1. Frequency effects in lenitionand the challenge oflexicalized markedness James Myers National Chung Cheng University Lngmyers@ccu.edu.tw Workshop on Variation, Gradience and Frequency in Phonology Stanford University, July 2007

2. Acknowledgments • Li Yingshing • For coauthoring the phonetic study • National Science Council (Taiwan) • For paying the bills • People like you

3. The argument • Lenition is markedness reduction in the raw • Yet lenition is lexicalized • Attempts to escape this conclusion don’t work • Lexicalized markedness cannot be formalized in grammar insightfully* • It’s essentially a peripheral processing issue • Therefore, markedness isn’t “inside” grammar • Hale & Reiss (2000), Boersma (2005) *Rhetorical convenience doesn’t count as insight.

4. Frequency effects in lenition • The more common a word or phrase, the more phonetically reduced it is in production • Studied by (among many others): Aylett & Turk (2004), Berkenfield (2001), Bybee (2000ab, 2002), Cacoullos & Ferreira (2000), Cohn et al. (2005), Fidelholtz (1975), Hammond (1999, 2004), Hay (2000), Hooper (1976), Johnson (1983), Jurafsky et al. (2001, 2002), Kawamoto et al. (1999), Lavoie (2002), Li (2005), Munson & Solomon (2004), Myers & Guy (1997), Myers (1999), Myers & Li (2005), Patterson & Connie (2001), Phillips (1984, 1999), Pierrehumbert (2001), Pluymaekers et al. (2005), Tseng (1999), van Bergem (1995), van Son et al. (2004), Wright (1979)

5. English vowel reduction (Hooper 1976) • Syllable contraction in Southern Min (Li 2005) Examples

6. What causes this phenomenon? • Speaker-oriented explanations • Articulatory targets become more automatized through use (e.g. Bybee 2001, Pierrehumbert 2001, 2002) • Listener-oriented explanations • Frequent words are more predictable, so speakers can afford to be less clear (e.g. Jurafsky et al. 2001) • What will resolve this crucial debate? • Phonetic and psycholinguistic experimentation • Theoretical phonology can only play catch-up

7. Why phonologists worry anyway • Phonetics is sensitive to lexical frequency • So phonetics isn’t really “post-lexical”? • Gradient reduction is word-specific • So lexical representations aren’t categorical? • Frequency-reduction correlation is universal • So lexical effects aren’t always idiosyncratic? • Yet lenition begets “real” phonology • Deletion, stress shift, assimilation...

8. Escape hatch #1: It’s not lexical? • Maybe it’s just an indirect effect • Frequent words are also more predictable in discourse context (e.g. Jurafsky et al. 2001) • Frequency eases lexical access, facilitating articulatory fluency (e.g. Pluymaekers et al. 2005) • How to test this • Factor out contextual predictability, ease of access, speaking rate • Does frequency still affect lenition?

9. Escape hatch #2: It’s not gradient? • Maybe it’s just stochastic “ordinary” phonology • Maybe frequency just increases the probability of choosing lenited over full allomorphs, but both are categorical (cf. Pluymaekers et al. 2005) • Variant: Probability of choosing prosodic frame • How to test this • Use a continuous dependent measure (not allomorph probability, as in many studies) • Control prosodic structure

10. Case study:Southern Min syllable contraction • Phonologically regular • “Edge-in” preservation of segments • Tonal contours are merged • Output often respects sonority profile • Vowels of higher sonority are often favored • Has been formalized with autosegmental notation and/or Optimality Theory • Chung (1996, 1997), Hsiao (1999, 2002), Hsu (2003)

11. Measuring syllable contraction • Twenty native speakers of Southern Min • Shadowing task • 120 items from spoken Southern Min corpus (Myers & Tsay 2003) • Hear uncontracted forms, must repeat back naturally (not told explicitly to contract) • Isolated items in random order (no contextual predictablity) • Dependent measure of contraction • Trough depth Myers & Li (submitted)

12. Analysis using Praat (Boersma & Weenink 2007) Trough depth • Maximum depth of amplitude contour (syllable boundary detection algorithm of Mermelstein 1975)

13. Predicting syllable contraction • Lexical frequency from corpus (log-normed) • Phonetic confounds • Segment types • Duration • Maximum intensity • Higher-level confounds • Reaction time (ease of lexical access) • Lexical category (whether or not word/phrase contains a function morpheme) • Tests for the influence of prosodic structure

14. Sample stimuli

15. factoring out lexical access factoring out phonetic influences factoring out prosody frequency Regression analysis [linear mixed-effect modeling (e.g., Baayen forthcoming)]

16. Frequency predicts lenition degree

17. accidental run of obstruent onsets… frequency estimates less reliable down here…? But is it gradient…? >

18. More evidence for gradience • Categorical allomorphs predict bimodality • Only two targets: Shallow vs. deep troughs • So no frequency effect within trough categories • Wrong: Frequency affects all trough depths • Increasing frequency always means shallower troughs, even among already shallow troughs

19. Still more evidence... • ... for gradience, and for lexical status • Twenty new native speakers of S. Min • Familiarity judgment task • Hear artificially contracted forms • Judge their familiarity (magnitude estimation) • Do familiarity and trough depth correlate? • If so, acoustic detail is stored in perceptual lexicon

20. Artificially contracted stimuli

21. Production & perception correlate (correlation remains even if corpus frequency is taken into account) (and vice versa) < >

22. Maybe a listener-oriented effect? • Twenty more native speakers of S. Min • Familiarity judgment task • Hear uncontracted forms from first experiment • Judge their familiarity (magnitude estimation) • Do familiarity and trough depth correlate? • If so, speakers are contracting to just the degree that listeners can compensate for via their familiarity with the intended categorical targets

23. Correlation is just so-so (correlation disappears when corpus frequency is taken into account) <

24. The story so far • Lenition is lexical • Frequency affects it directly • Listeners store copies of lenited forms • Lenition is phonetically gradient • Not merely selection of categorical allomorphs • Yet frequency effects in lenition aren’t “deep” • Occur with shadowing (cf. Pluymaekers et al. 2005) • Not reducible to lexical access effects • Don’t respect phonological units (syllables) • Speakers don’t care about listeners...?

25. Interface faith constraints(Hammond 1999, Myers 1999, Coetzee 2007; cf. Boersma 1998, 2006) FaithLowFreq >> *Structure >> FaithHighFreq • Interface structure constraints(Hammond 2004) *StructureHighFreq >> Faith >> *StructureLowFreq • Cophonologies(Myers & Li 2005) Faith >> *Structure *Structure >> Faith LowFreq HighFreq Invasion of the phonologists

26. LowFreq HighFreq X X X rarely violates Faith X Y X Y X Y often violates Faith Learning these rankings • E.g. faith constraints for high-frequency items get violated more often, hence get demoted • Boersma (2006) applies this to common vs. rarer gestures (e.g. Cor vs. Lab), but it also works for word frequency effects in gradient lenition

27. LowFreq HighFreq X X X X Y X Y X Y Problem: Lenition isn’t Faith alone • In lenition, markedness is defined articulatorily • Why not FaithLowFreq >> *[+rd,-bk] >> FaithHighFreq? • Lenition is phonetically gradient • Why can’t X & Y be categorical? • One-mechanism-fits-all approach misses point • Lenition is an articulatory phenomenon, and so are its frequency effects

28. Problem: Kids work backwards • Higher-frequency words are pronounced more adult-like (Tyler & Edwards 1993; Gierut et al. 1999) • Gierut et al. (1999) analyze this with interface faith constraints ranked the reverse of lenition FaithHighFreq>> *Structure >> FaithLowFreq • Boersma (p.c.) calls this learning “articulatory” • How does processing level affect the XY logic? • How can there be “extra-lexical” frequency effects?

29. Escape hatch # 3:Everything is lexical • Memory resides in synapses, so everything the brain does is “memorized” • Frequency alone can’t diagnose processing stage • E.g. whole-word frequency effects in the access of morphologically complex words • Whole-word storage in the mental lexicon? • ... or memory traces of the morpheme combination process (Taft 2004, Myers et al. 2006)? • Does grammar provide any insights here?

30. The argument (reprise) • If all lenition is driven by articulation... • ... and is expressed mentally by lexicalized peripheral processing, not grammar or the “linguist’s lexicon” ... • ... and lenition is the source of some of the most interesting “real” phonology ... • ... then what does a markedness-based grammar have left to do?

31. Frequency effects in lenitionand the challenge oflexicalized markedness James Myers National Chung Cheng University Lngmyers@ccu.edu.tw Workshop on Variation, Gradience and Frequency in Phonology Stanford University, July 2007

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