Biological Level of Analysis

1. Biological Level of Analysis Session 22 Module Revision

2. BLOA Learning Outcomes General learning outcomes • LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis • LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research • LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis • LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis.

3. BLOA Learning Outcomes Physiology and behaviour Learning Outcomes • LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain • LO6: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour • LO7:Using one or more examples, explain functions of two hormones in human behaviour. • L08 Discuss two effects of the environment on physiological processes • LO9 Examine one interaction between cognition and physiology in terms of behaviour. Evaluate two relevant studies. • LO10 Discuss the use of brain imaging technologies in investigating the relationship between biological factors and behaviour.

4. BLOA Learning Outcomes Genetics and behaviour Learning Outcomes • L011: With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent does genetic inheritance influence behaviour? • LO12: Examine one evolutionary explanation of behaviour. • LO13: Discuss ethical considerations in research into genetic influences on behaviour.

5. Evaluating Studies • Methodological considerations • Alternative explanations • Gender considerations • Ethical considerations • Cultural considerations Unit 2: Biological LOA

6. Do Do you believe in MAGEC? • It is important not just to identify the consideration, but to clearly link it to either the study or the bigger question. • You need to explain WHY not just state strengths and limitations • E.G. The study was unethical BECAUSE.... Unit 2: Biological LOA

7. Please note • The following slides are merely an overview of the BLOA • You need to revise in much more depth to perform well on exam • Any topics you are unsure of go back and read the full slides

8. LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis??

9. LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis • There are biological correlates of behaviour • Animal research can provide insight into behaviour • Human behaviouris, to some extent, genetically based Unit 2: Biological LOA

10. LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis 1.) There are biological correlates of behaviour Physiological origins of behaviour • Implication is that it should be possible to link specific biological factor (e.g. a hormone) and a specific behaviour • Aim of researchers working at the biological level of analysis • Biological researchers often adopt a reductionist approach Unit 2: Biological LOA

11. LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis 2.) Animal Research can provide insight into human behaviour • Significant amount of research at BLOA uses animals to study physiological processes • Assumed that most biological processes in animals are the same as humans • One important reason for using animals is that there is a lot of research where humans cannot be used for ethical reasons Unit 2: Biological LOA

12. LO1: Outline principles that define the biological level of analysis 3.) Human behaviour is, to some extent, genetically based • Behaviour can, to some extent, be explained by genetic inheritance • RARELY seen as full explanation • Genetic inheritance should be seen as genetic predisposition-can be affected by environmental factors • Researchers often use twin studies Unit 2: Biological LOA

13. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research • For this question you must include the outline of principles AND an example of research

14. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research • There are biological correlates of behaviour • Animal research can provide insight into behaviour • Human behaviouris, to some extent, genetically based Research to demonstrate it?? Unit 2: Biological LOA

15. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research1.) There are biological correlates of behaviour Newcomer et al. (1999) • Performed experiment on the role of stress hormone cortisol on verbal declarative memory • Group 1 showed worst performance on memory task • Shows increase in cortisol has a negative effect on memory Unit 2: Biological LOA

16. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research1.) There are biological correlates of behaviour • Phineas Gage • Shows there are biological correlates of behavior (after his frontal lobe was damaged his personality changed Unit 2: Biological LOA

17. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research2.) Animal Research can provide insight into human behaviour Rozenweig and Bennet (1972) • Wanted to study role of environmental factors on brain plasticity with rats • Rats spent up to 60 days in their respective environments before being killed • Brains of rats in group 1 showed a thicker layer of neurons in the cortex than group 2 • Shows that brain grows more neurons if stimulated Unit 2: Biological LOA

18. LO2: Explain how principles that define the biological level of analysis may be demonstrated in research3.) Human behaviour is, to some extent, genetically based Bouchard et al. (1990) • Minnesota Twin Study • Longitudinal study investigating role of genes in IQ** • Shows a link between genetic inheritance and intelligence but does not rule out the role of environment Unit 2: Biological LOA

19. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis

20. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis • BLOA research looks at physiology and genes and their effect on behaviour • At the BLOA the main research methods used are experiments and case studies.  • Twin studies, adoption studies and family studies are also used to investigate relationship between genes and behaviour • Brain imaging technology used to map brain activity

21. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis Lab experiments e.g. Rozenweig and Bennett (1972) Describe what lab experiment is and provide example Strengths • Can be repeated, results tend to be more reliable • Controlled environment, removes confounding variable • Isolation of IV and DV give a clear cause and effect relationship • Can always be generalised to a certain extent • Data easily measured Weaknesses of Experiment • Lab environment, low in ecological validity • May break ethical guidelines • Lower generalising potential • [Natural experiment] No control over variables, unpredictable • Possibility of Demand characteristics

22. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis Case Studies: e.g. H.M. Phineas Gage, Clive Wearing, Genie Describe what a case study is and provide an example Strengths • Unique studies that would otherwise be unethical to do e.g. Genie • Less likelihood to break ethical guidelines • Insight into certain areas of psychology that would otherwise be difficult to study • Often leads to in depth data e.g. H.M for 50 years • High ecological validity Weaknesses • Low potential to generalise • Since it cannot be repeated, results might be unreliable

23. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis Twin Studies e.g. Bouchard et al (1990) Describe method of twin studies and provide example Strengths • Twin studies have produced a great deal of data in support of biological roots of disorders; this has helped psychologists to stress prevention for those who are vulnerable to such disorders. • There is a high cross-cultural reliability of concordance levels Weaknesses • MZ twins are rarely separated at birth and raised in a totally different environment, yet this is really necessary to substantiate claims. MZ twins reared together share many of the same experiences. DZ twins reared together may not share the same experiences due to levels of attractiveness or temperament.

24. LO3: Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the biological level of analysis Adoption Studies e.g. Horn et al (1979) Describe method of adoption studies and provide example Strengths • Adoption studies allow researchers to isolate variables. • If a biological mother has no contact since birth and still matches for a specific trait - for example, the adopted child’s IQ is better than the adoptive mother and in concordance with the birth mother - this is strong evidence that genes play a significant role in the development of this trait Weaknesses • Selective placement is a problem. Babies tend to placed with families similar in background to the natural parents. • Adopted children – as well as twins - are not representative of all children. • The act of being given up for adoption may affect the child’s behaviour.

25. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis.

26. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. Can Do Can’t Do With Participants

27. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. Confidentiality Deception Consent Debrief Withdrawal Protection

28. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. • Ethical considerations=standards set to prevent experiments from harming the participants. • Before performing an experiment, researchers must consider what is appropriate to do to the experiments in a study. • All research needs to be conducted in a way that respects the dignity of the participants, whether they are humans or animals • Sometimes a need to break guidelines • For research purposes, where there are no other feasible methods • Demand characteristics (mostly with Deception) • Cues in an experiment that tells participants what behaviour is expected

29. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. • Informed consent – participants must be informed about the study and its procedure and give their formal agreement to participate. This can be done by use of a contract or other document. • Deception – sometimes deception is necessary because if the participants knew the true nature of the experiment, it could affect the results. In general, deception should not be used. However, if it is used, it must be used with discretion and must not cause any stress to the participants. If used, the necessity of deception must also be explained to the participants during the debriefing.  • Confidentiality – all information obtained in a study must be kept confidential. In most situations, all participants must remain anonymous. • Debrief: Participants must be debriefed as to true purpose of study at the end of it. • Withdrawal from a study – participants must be made aware that they have the right to withdraw from the experiment at any time or revoke their individual data at the end of the study if they wish. • Protection from physical and mental harm – it is unethical for a researcher to perform an experiment that in any way harms, demeans, embarrasses, or stresses a participant, or forces them to reveal private information.

30. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. Studies at BLOA with ethical considerations Rosenzweig and Bennett (1972)  • Rats were euthanized to study their brains-cruelty? • Didn’t use humans so ethical  • But the research provided significant benefit to the understanding of the effects of the environment on brain plasticity . This knowledge could benefit humans and other animals  Case study of H.M • Informed consent issues • His identity was kept confidential until death • Ends justify means? Learnt a lot about memory systems Case study of Genie • Ethical to study child who has been abused so much? • Consent issues? Twin Studies • Ethical considerations on how twins raised apart are reunited

31. LO4: Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the biological level of analysis. Ethical Debate: • Use of PET scans and fMRI scans has helped psychologists identify brain patterns for dysfunctional behaviours (there is one for alcoholism, schizophrenia, depression, etc.) • These patterns are present even if the individual does not show any signs of the disorder. • Should doctors scan patients to let them know if they have a predisposition (the brain pattern) for a mental disorder? How would this affect the individual? 1. YES – doctors should inform the patients that their brain scans match that of a mental disorder, even if that person does not show any symptoms of the disorder. It would give the individual the signal to monitor themselves and their own behaviour in case that disorder really does manifest itself within them. As soon as any symptoms arrive, they will know to seek medical or psychological attention immediately. Ethically, individuals should have the right to know what conditions they are at risk for, so that they can be aware and prepare themselves for the future. 2. NO – the doctors should not inform their patients that their brain scans match that of a mental disorder. This would only add stress to the individual and may escalate them into their predisposed condition, especially if that condition is something like depression. If no symptoms are present, it is unethical to concern someone with a potential disorder that does not even exist.

32. LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain??

33. LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain Localisation? • When a behaviour is localised in the brain, it is possible to trace the origin of a behaviour to a specific part of the brain • Studies in localisation of function led to the desire to map out the brain’s functions Unit 2: Biological LOA

34. LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain • Paul Broca (1861) Found that people suffering from damage to their left frontal lobe of the brain were unable to make grammatically complex sentences. • This condition is now known as Broca’s aphasia • Case study of Tan used as evidence Unit 2: Biological LOA

35. LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain Carl Wernicke (1874) • First described the area that appears to be crucial for language comprehension • The left posterior superior temporal gyrus • Wernicke’s patients could produce speech, but could not understand it • This condition is known as Wernicke’s aphasia Unit 2: Biological LOA

36. LO5: Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain Broca and Wernicke • Research undertaken by Broca and Wernicke provides us with a clear understanding of some of the factors involved in language processing • By carrying out post-mortem studies of people who had suffered from strokes, they came to the conclusion that language processing is localised Unit 2: Biological LOA

37. LO5Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain The case study of H.M. • Milner (1957) first to report case • H.M. had anterograde amnesia (failure to store memories that happened AFTER trauma) • Corkin et al. (1997) MRI scan of H.M.’s brain • Brain imaging allowed researchers to get a precise image of the brain damage i.e. hippocampus • Important: provided evidence that there are different memory systems in the brain Unit 2: Biological LOA

38. LO5Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain What can be learned about localisation of brain from H.M. • Hippocampus plays a critical role in converting memories from short-term to long-term memory • H.M. had deficits in one part of the memory but not in others is evidence that the brain has several memory systems supported by distinct brain regions • H.M. could learn new procedural memories which indicates that these memories are not stored via the hippocampus • Shows memory processes are much more complex than originally believed • Although hippocampus is very important in the storage of new memories it is not the only part of the brain involved in the process = Localised parts for different memory systems Unit 2: Biological LOA

39. LO5Explain one study related to localization of function in the brain Evaluation of H.M. • Ethics: memory to give consent? • Participated in research for 50+ years in many kinds of tests including cognitive tasks, observations and neuroimaging studies • Longitudinal case study has contributed enormously to knowledge of how memory processes are related to specific areas of the brain: • The hippocampus is important for the forming, organising and retrieval of memories • Procedural memories are not processed by the hippocampus • Case study it is questionable whether the results can be generalised to a larger population HOWEVER... • Findings from other case studies of people with brain damage like H.M. tend to support these findings so it may be possible to generalise the findings to some extent. Unit 2: Biological LOA

40. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour Examples of neurotransmitters??

41. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviour • Neurotransmitter= body’s natural chemical messengers • Transmits info from one neuron to another • Our chemical balances/imbalances correlate to specific human behaviors • Higher or lower levels of certain neurotransmitters and/or can lead to changes in behavior • These associations are merely correlations, and do not necessarily demonstrate any cause and effect relationship. • We don’t know what other variables may be affecting both the neurotransmitter and the behaviour • E.G. We don’t know if the change in the neurotransmitter causes the illness, or the illness causes the change in the neurotransmitter. Unit 2: Biological LOA

42. Serotonin?

43. Sleep Serotonin Mood Undersupply linked to OCD, depression, suicide Unit 2: Biological LOA

44. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on humanKasamatsu and Hirai (1999) • Aim: see how sensory deprivation affects brain • Studied group of Buddhist monks who went on a 72 hour pilgrimage to a holy mountain • Monks didn’t consume food or water, did not speak • After 48 hours monks had hallucinations often seeing ancient ancestors or feeling a ‘presence’ by their side • Researchers took blood samples before monks ascended mountain and again immediately after monks reported hallucinations • Found serotonin levels had increased in monks’ brains Unit 2: Biological LOA

45. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviourKasamatsu and Hirai (1999) • These higher levels of serotonin activated parts of brain resulting in hallucinations • Concluded sensory deprivation triggered the release of serotonin which actually altered way that monks experienced the world Evaluation • Study on very small group of people who are different to most hard to generalise • Monks on a pilgrimage- beliefs may be responsible for hallucinations Do NOT use this as your only example. Use it to showcase your critical thinking abilities Unit 2: Biological LOA

46. Acetylcholine??

47. Muscle action Memory Acetylcholine Undersupply linked to Alzheimer’s Unit 2: Biological LOA

48. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviourMartinez and Kesner (1991) • Aim: to determine role of neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) on memory formation • Procedure: Experimental study using rats. Rats trained to run a maze. • Group 1: problems finding way through maze & made more mistakes • Group 2: ran quickly through maze & made few mistakes. Quicker than control group. • ACh linked to memory formation Unit 2: Biological LOA

49. L06: Using one or more examples, explain effects of neurotransmission on human behaviourEvaluation of Martinez and Kesner (1991) • Controlled lab experiment with control group- can establish cause & effect between ACh and memory • Questionable whether can generalise findings to humans. • HOWEVER, research has shown ACh producing cells are damaged in early stages of Alzheimer’s Unit 2: Biological LOA

50. Dopamine??