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Vince Dravitzki Tiffany Lester

Economics drove our first sustainable urban transport system; and the unsustainable one that followed. Vince Dravitzki Tiffany Lester. Overview. Introduction Some comments on sustainable transport The first sustainable urban transport system 1900-1949 The mixed system 1950-1970

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Vince Dravitzki Tiffany Lester

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  1. Economics drove our first sustainable urban transport system; and the unsustainable one that followed Vince Dravitzki Tiffany Lester

  2. Overview • Introduction • Some comments on sustainable transport • The first sustainable urban transport system 1900-1949 • The mixed system 1950-1970 • The 1970s 1970-1980 • Economic reforms 1980-2000 • Conclusions

  3. Introduction • There is a general acceptance that New Zealand’s current transport is unsustainable, although pathway to sustainability is debated. • This Paper looks to our past. We used to have a sustainable household transport system. • Success of the previous sustainable system. • Change to the current unsustainable form. • The role of economics in driving this change and some other factors in the change.

  4. Sustainable Transport • Descriptive rather than quantitative definitions. • Sustainability is often depicted as the intersection of environmental, social, and economic factors. • Household transport must: • Facilitate economic connection. • Facilitate social connection. • Promote health and safety. • Use energy efficiently and wisely. • Complement urban form and liveability. • Have low environmental impact. • Passenger transport scores highly on the last three criteria. • Cars score highly on the first two criteria, until numbers cause congestion.

  5. Other Bicycle Walk Bus Car passenger Car driver Mode to CBD versus Distance Travelled (Christchurch CBD, 1960) • Arrival by car changes little with distance of journey. • Clear relationship between walking and public transport (shift between 1-2 miles) • Clear relationship between cycling and public transport (shift between 3-5 miles) • No relationship between walking and cycling. • Buses viable for journeys up to 6 miles (11 km), at least

  6. A New Era in New Zealand Urban Transport • Between 1899 and 1916 electric tram systems were laid in 12 NZ cities and towns • Systems were laid for small populations • Cities 50,000 to 180,000 • Towns 6,000 to 20,000 • A large investment in public infrastructure • Systems were publicly owned • Systems were electrically powered • First use of electricity for transport

  7. Followed by a New Era in Urban Growth • Within 30 years, the impact on promoting urban growth clearly evident. • Growth of the CBD. • Expansion of the suburbs. • Tram systems made travel from suburbs to CBD a half-hour-journey rather than taking a half-day. • The systems were successfully operating in the suburban densities of the time. • Those suburban densities still exist today.

  8. Early Competition • No new tram systems established after 1916. • Competition from private motor-buses. • 1st World War rapidly developed truck transport. • Returning soldiers set up bus companies. • 1928 Transport Act “protected” tram networks. • Competition also from bicycles • (As roads improved.)

  9. Economic Success: Passengers and Revenue • Systems were commercially successful and run as break-even operations. • There was a long period of stable fares. • Significant patronage decline during the 1930s Depression. • Patronage increase during 2nd World War fuel restrictions. • Motor-bus systems to complement tram systems were established.

  10. The Mixed System: 1950-1970 1 of 2 • Car use and ownership accelerated with the release from almost two decades of restraint. • Depression and 2nd World War • Vehicle numbers doubled in the 1950s. • Close to 1 car per household by mid-1960s. • Social-Recreational travel a motivator for car ownership. • Cities now started to be shaped by the car rather than by public transport.

  11. The Mixed System: 1950-1970 2 of 2 • All tram systems replaced by trolley-bus and diesel-bus systems . • 1963 for Wellington. • At this time, tram systems were old (50+ years) and starting to be outgrown by expanding cities. • In need of some investment. • Re-investment was in bus systems • Business Case of “lower operating costs and greater route flexibility” than trams.

  12. Local Assembly of Vehicles • Local assembly started in 1926. Active encouragement by Government from 1930’s onwards. • Import substitution of components help establish manufacturing and engineering industries and sector skills • Glass windows. • Auto-electrical. • Tyres and rubber products. • Paints adhesives and sealants. • Upholstery and car trim. • Car priced halved with the start of local assembly in 1926 and reduced by 30% when it closed in the 1990’s.

  13. Bus/Tram Passengers in Four Cities • Decline of public transport patronage continued in 1960s and 1970s • Buses now sharing congested street space with cars • Average bus loadings decreasing • unless services cut • Greater proportion of fares from concessions (children and elderly) • 1990 to 2001: only 3% of total travel by bus

  14. Loss of Dedicated Street Space ≈1937 ≈1975

  15. Metropolitan Public Transport • Tram/bus systems were successful in the typical New Zealand suburban form with route lengths of ≈12 km • Journeys were suburban-CBD • In the 1950s Auckland and Wellington each expanded into multi-city metropolitan areas • 20 to 40 km journeys were needed for this form • Journeys to the CBD were suburban-intercity-CBD • A “high speed” intercity section was mainly provided only by motorway systems, especially in Auckland • Development focussed on tying motorways into the CBD street system

  16. 1970s: Government Response to “Oil Shocks” • Tripled fuel prices, 1973-1975; then doubled them again, 1978-1980 • Reduced open speed limit from 100 to 80kmph • Increased taxes and charges on larger engine sizes • Restricted the number of new vehicles • Banned weekend fuel sales • Imposed carless days 1979-1980 • Allowed “glide-time” for Government workers late1970’s • Established agencies for alternate fuels CNG LPG, Bio-fuels • Continued to build roads but no significant investment in public transport • Invested heavily in fuel supply and self sufficiency 1977-1984

  17. 1970s: Vehicle Fleet Additions Small-engined cars Medium-enginedcars Very-large-engined cars Large-engined cars

  18. Resilience to Oil Supply: 1940s versus 1970s • 1940s tram systems were powered by local hydroelectric power so during the (1940s) wartime fuel shortages: • Tram services still able to be expanded • Fares could remain constant • Patronage increased by 25% • 1970s bus fleet was diesel-powered so during the 1970s fuel restrictions: • Steep rises in fuel price raised operating costs • Operating costs worsened by induced wage/price inflation • Tight economic condition prevented re-investment • Fares rose to attempt to recover costs • Patronage dropped by 15-25% between 1974 and 1978

  19. 1980s/1990s: Vehicle Affordability • Since 1985 the price for a new car has decreased by 30%. • Since 1985 the price for 4-5 year old used car has decreased by approximately 50%. • In 2005 two-thirds of the cars entering the NZ fleet were about 5+ years old.

  20. 1980s/1990s: Registrations by Engine Size

  21. 1980s/1990s Reforms: Household Vehicles • Almost all households have at least 1 vehicle. • Since 2001 50% of households have 2 or more vehicles. • Households have also become smaller so that there are proportionally 25% more households to house the population compared to 1961.

  22. Household Transport Expenditure • Since 1973/1974, transport expenditure has fallen steadily. • From 17% to 13% of total. • Even though households: • Have moved to larger cars. • Own more cars per occupant. • Have reduced use of walking, cycling, and public transport. • Proportions of other household expenditure categories are stable or increasing.

  23. Household Private Transport Expenditure • Percentage expenditure on private transport has declined for all income groups since 1984-1985. • Households from all income groups are spending a similar proportion of their total household expenditure on private travel.

  24. Conclusions 1 of 2 • Sustainable transport has a wider framework than just environmental sustainability. Facilitating economic and social interactions is a key role. • Context is important for sustainability. • Public transport is important given distances in modern city (especially the walking/public transport combination). • Economics is a major factor in travel mode choice and vehicle purchase decisions.

  25. Conclusions 2 of 2 • Apart from the early 1900’s, we probably did not use the new technology wisely. • Of cars and new public transport technologies. • Economic deregulation reduced transport costs but encouraged non-sustainable behaviours. • Returning to sustainable transport needs the economic drivers to be for this direction.

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