Africa, The Middle East and Asia in the Era of Independence

1. 33 Africa, The Middle East and Asia in the Era of Independence

2. The Big Picture • Following World War II, waves of independence movements swept Asia and Africa. Independence and liberation are two distinct processes and the later continues to be a struggle through much of the post-colonial world • Profound demographic shifts (population growth and urbanization) continue to challenge the post-colonial world • Emerging cultural identities and stress between western liberal and indigenous cultural aspects challenge these emerging nations

3. Key Questions • How and why did nations in Asia and Africa achieve independence? • What was the role of charismatic leaders and political parties in this movement? • How did cultural identities unite and divide emerging nations? • What was the lingering role of western cultures on these new nations? • What was the cause and effect of demographic shifts in emerging nations?.

4. A graphic view Africa • Some nations declared independence from Europeans, others seceded from existing nations • The world’s newest nation, South Sudan, is not depicted on this map

5. A graphic view Asia • While the 1940’s were an active time for independence, the break up of the Soviet Union in 1991 established a new wave of indpependence

6. Independence vs. Liberalization • Independence can be considered the process of turning over governance and sovereignty to local authorities • Borders drawn by colonial authorities without considerations of culture- artificial borders • Independence is relative rather than absolute- What is the new relationship between the former colony and emerging nation? • Liberation is the process by which a majority of the new nation’s inhabitants have a meaningful voice in the political and economic life of the nation • This process is ongoing and less clear than independence • Ethnic and religious forces continue to battle western notions of democratic liberalism- e.gBokoHaram in Nigeria

7. The Emerging World Order after WWII • Political geographers organized the emerging political map as divided into three separate worlds. • The first world- developed nations- liberal democracies- higher standard of living • The second world- communist oligarchies- considerable variance in wealth • The third world- developing nations- include many newly independent nations as well as Latin America and non-colonized Asia • Little or no industry- extractive wealth (oil) made some of these nations very wealthy by the 1970’s • End of the Cold War would make this map less relevant

8. The Three Worlds

9. What were some common issues in the third world? • Third world nations faced demographic instability (more later) • Third world nations have economies that depend on monoculture and extractive wealth • Third world nations became the battleground between the forces of the first and second world • Communist and non-communist forces arm groups supporting their models of political development • Vietnam, Angola, Nicaragua etc…

10. The Demographic Challenges • Dramatic population rises experienced in Europe in the 19th century hit newly independent states • Traditionally high birthrates were balanced by lower life expectancies and high infant mortality • Columbian exchange (16th-19th century) and improved health and sanitation systems (20th century) lower mortality in emerging states • Population rates would double in less than 30 years stressing resources of developing nations • Gapminder statistical analysis Population Growth

11. Population Growth and Development • Lower infant mortality would immediately burden educational systems of emerging nations • The intermediate effect was the need to employ large numbers of young men and women • Improved agricultural efficiency and lack of land would drive many to the cities (more later) • Marriage and high fertility of these people would further increase population

12. Population growth: Egypt

13. Population Growth: Ghana

14. Population Pyramid: India 1991 and 2020 • What changes do you note in India’s population characteristics? How can we explain them?

15. Thomas Malthus on population • 18th Century English cleric made some pessimistic predications about the future of population growth • Food production grows arithmetically while population unchecked by disease or starvation grows exponentially • Arithmetically- 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 ... • Exponentially • A phenomenon known as a demographic transition where growing populations reduce fertility rates has partially offset this • Various cultural values have affected this

16. What might be the relationship between population growth and per capita income in a nation?

17. Populations, Independence and National Liberation • Emerging nations were experiencing the population growth that Europe did in the Industrial Revolution • Emerging nations lacked the industrial development to employ excess rural populations moving to cities • Emerging nations lacked the colonial territories to send excess populations • Growing populations and agricultural efficiency would draw larger numbers to growing “parasitic cities”

18. Parasitic Cites • Sterns noted that cities lacked the wealth generating industries that would absorb rural migrants • Rural migration would help to fuel Europe’s industrial revolution • Cities become dead ends for migrants • Begging, hucksters, street vendors • Encourage development of volatile mobs organizing to challenge elites and other perceived blocking their life-chances • Cities become increasingly dependent on rural areas as governments buy off crowds with subsidized food

19. Urbanization in a View • In 1950, 12 of the 20 largest cities were in Japan, Europe or America • By 1975, it was 7 out of 20 • By 2000, it was 5 of 20 • In 2015, it is only 3 of 20 (and none are in Europe) • Managing population growth and urbanization in the developing world may be its greatest challenge

20. General Challenges in Independence • How can a western style nationalism be styled to incorporate the ethno-religious identities of emerging states? • How can the colonial elites who will lead the independence movements be seen as authentic in spite of their European veneers? • How can emerging governments deliver on the promises of economic gains and civil liberties? • How can new leaders negotiate through ethnic and religious divisions that Europeans exploited during colonization? • Reading 815 Artificial nations…

21. Rallying Behind Charismatic Leaders and One Party/Military Rule • Independence movements coalesced under charismatic figures who had to use anti-imperialism as a rallying point. • These leaders became a personification of these emerging states that had no unique national history • Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana • Created the name Ghana from African History • His nation was never part of the historical kingdom of Ghana • Stages events to create national tradition and pride- Drawn from Fascist models • One party rule taken down in a military coup

22. Egypt and Arab Nationalism • Egypt’s move to independence was more gradual than most of Africa • The Wafd Political Party would challenge British rule after World War I, but be co-opted by Britain during World War II • Wafd modeled on western liberal democratic model • This movement challenged by Islamic identity model of Hasan al-Banna- Islamic Brotherhood • Railed at the affluence of a European-styled Egyptian middle class among the poverty of Egypt- popular in rural areas • Rejected nationalism , liberalism, western materialism and democracy • Repressed movement at odds with secular-military establishment • Won election in 2011- defeated in military coup in 2013

23. Nasser and Arab Nationalism • Like in many emerging nations, the military would dominate this nation in post-independence • General Gamal Abdul Nasser earns hero status in Arab world for his opposition of Zionism (seen as an extension of European Imperialism) • Suez Crisis 1956- Drives the French and British out of Suez • A military directed nationalism would repress religious identity movements for most of the 20th century • Nasser’s successor Anwar al Sadat assassinated in 1981 by a member of the Brotherhood

24. Religious Revivalism in Post Colonial Societies • Examples in Iran Egypt and Afghanistan • The jarring impact of liberal (and often secular) westernization on rural and urban poor was increasingly alienated • Autocratic leaders of the post independence period would impose aspects of western social and economic programs and facilitate neocolonialism • This would spawn a religious revival as a countervailing force where strong religious values remained a force • Contemporary examples in Islamic world include BokoHaram, The Taliban, The Islamic Brotherhood, Islamic Republic of Iran • Each of these groups has vastly different interpretations • All draw in interpretations of Islam as a counter to western liberal model that has alienated growing numbers of people who feel left out

25. Negotiating Post Colonial Economic Development • Colonialism initiated African (and to a lesser degree) Asian colonies into the world economy as sources of agricultural and mineral products • Little industrial base and competitive open markets and scarcity of capital challenged economic development • Price of primary products fluctuated and could spark economic crisis • Oil producers were the best off as their product was fundamental in the industrial economy • Oil rich sparsely populated lands awash in money- idle rich populations often as restive as urban poor • Neocolonialism- economic imperialism “cocacolonization” • Economic development as a challenge to native institutions and identity

26. Racism and the Settler Society of South Africa: Independence vs. Liberation • In most freed colonies, independence made little or know difference for many if not most residents of freed colony • E.g. What did independence in 1776 mean to African slaves in America? • While South Africa’s colonial rule ended early in the 20th century, liberation did not come for a majority until 1994

27. White Settler Colonies and the Struggle between Liberty and Independence • South Africa had two major settler colonies in the 20th Century • Rhodesia (Now Zimbabwe) • South Africa • In both states, whites organized minority rule • This was particularly tricky in Rhodesia where whites were a tiny minority • Unilaterally declared independence from Britain in 1965 • South Africa built an elaborate system to maintain white rule

28. The Apart in Apartheid • All south Africans were racially identified at birth • Black Asians and colored (non-whites) could not vote in national elections- Like Jim Crow • Non-whites had to carry a pass when in white areas • Creation of African ethno-linguistic homelands (Bantustans) Similar to partition of Palestine • Blacks economically and politically dependent on white populations

29. Taking Apart Apartheid • System kept in place by state- sponsored terror- spies and police • Opposition divided among ethnic lines • Black identity divided between ethno-linguistic lines • African National Congress organized to challenge South African police state • Nelson Mandela among others placed in off-shore prisons • Growing international boycott isolates South Africa • Moderate white leader F.W de Klerk negotiates with ANC- released Mandela in 1990 • 1994 election brings majority rule with white participation • South Africa is working to build a new nationalism that is interracial and inter-ethnic

30. The Developing World of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East • The emerging states in this region have a great variety of challenges and tools to meet those challenges • The legacy of imperialism and the tightening web is generating identity backlashes among those who are increasingly aware of their marginalization • Globalization has made “their problems” into “our problems” • The issue of independence is done, but liberation will involve unique blends of models taken from emerging global models