Ethics as AoK

1. Ethics as AoK

2. Ethics as AoK “I cannot see how to refute the arguments for the subjectivity of ethical values, but I find myself incapable of believing that all that is wrong with wanton cruelty is that I don’t like it.” —Bertrand Russell, 1872-1970 “When a stupid man is doing something he is ashamed of, he always declares it his duty.” —George Bernard Shaw, 1856-1950

3. Moral Reasoning • Moral Principle: • Cheating on a test is wrong. Snoogles cheated on the test. There what Snoogle did was wrong. • Identify the Moral Principle: • Paula shouldn’t have kept the money she found—it doesn’t belong to her. • The CEO accepts bribes. He should be fired. • Bubba should be released from prison. He didn’t receive a fair trial.

4. Moral Reasoning • Consistency: expect moral judgment to be applied w/consistency • anti-abortionist who supports the death penalty • vegetarian who buys leather shoes, belts, etc. • politician who proclaims family values has an affair • Facts: alleged facts that are basis of moral judgments are true • capital punishment is a deterrent • child labor should be outlawed • genetically modified foods should be banned

5. Moral Reasoning Moral Principle ConsistencyFacts Value-judgment What if we do not share the same underlying moral principle?

6. Moral Relativism Morals determined by the society in which we grew up No universal morals: more like customs, i.e. monogamous/polygamous; bury dead/burn dead

7. Moral Relativism • Diversity Argument: abundance of moral practices throughout the world & throughout time means no objective moral values • Slavery; female genital mutilation; sahti; cannibalism • Lack of Foundation Argument: no independent moral ‘reality’ to base moral values as a measure of true/false • David Hume, 1711-1776: “tis not contrary to reason to prefer the destruction of the whole world to the scratching of my finger.”

8. Moral Relativism Culture of Tolerance: Is it possible with moral relativism? Problem of Cultural Imperialism Is it always okay to believe that “they have their values and I have my values and who am I to say he’s wrong”?

9. Moral Relativism First they came for the Jews
and I did not speak out
because I was not a Jew. 
Then they came for the Communists
and I did not speak out
because I was not a Communist. 
Then they came for the trade unionists
and I did not speak out
because I was not a trade unionist. 
Then they came for me
and there was no one left
to speak out for me. --Martin Niemöller

10. Self-interest Theory Premise: humans are always and everywhere selfish How does such a theory impact the notion of morals or ethics? Definitional Argument Evolutionary Argument Hidden Benefits Argument Fear of Punishment Argument

11. Self-interest Theory Definitional Argument True by definition (necessarily true) that everyone is selfish What about altruism? Hang with your friends Visit a retirement home Which action is altruistic?

12. Self-interest Theory Definitional Argument Is there a difference between Donald Trump and Mother Theresa based on the definitional argument?

13. Self-interest Theory Definitional Argument • Criticism: • Definitional argument robs ‘selfish’ of its meaning; how can you criticize something that is the universal motivator of actions • Self-regarding Desires v. Other-regarding Desires

14. Self-interest Theory Evolutionary Argument Struggle for survival led us to being selfish Other people’s interests concern us only to extent they affect our own interests Therefore: capitalism is superior to socialism because it taps into human nature

15. Self-interest Theory Evolutionary Argument • Criticism: • Evidence that supports idea that empathy & altruism is part of our nature • Monkeys refuse pull lever that delivers food if it also caused a shock in another monkey • Babies (about 1 yr. old) will offer a blanket or toy if they see their mother crying • Edward O. Wilson, biologist, “Cooperative individuals generally survive longer and leave more offspring.”

16. Self-interest Theory Hidden Benefits Argument We get hidden benefits from being kind to people, i.e. gratitude, praise, positive image Return a favor or helps our reputation

17. Self-interest Theory Hidden Benefits Argument • Criticism: • People do acts without expecting anything in return, i.e. tip restaurant never visit again • Citizens of Chambon, France who hid Jews from Nazis • Oskar Schindler or Raol Wallenberg • David Hume: “I esteem the man whose self-love, by whatever means, is so directed as to give him a concern for others, and render him serviceable to society; as I hate or despise him who has no regard for anything beyond his own gratifications and enjoyments.”

18. Self-interest Theory Fear of Punishment Argument Civil behavior results only from fear of being punished with a fine, ostracism, imprisonment, shame, etc. What would have if the police were to go on strike? Montreal, 17 October 1969

19. Self-interest Theory Fear of Punishment Argument • Criticism • What is the basis of this belief? • Cynic might claim Mother Theresa acted out of fear of eternal damnation, but wouldn’t God know that and judge her accordingly • Ring of Gyges (Plato): ring allows bearer to become invisible… what would you do with it?

20. Theories of Ethics Systematic Approach Religious Ethics Duty Ethics Utilitarianism Immanuel Kant

21. Theories of Ethics Religious Ethics Religion like an authoritative rule book Source of moral insight & ethical guidance Does that mean we do not have to think about ethics, that we have no responsibility to reflect on ethics?

22. Theories of Ethics Religious Ethics What about free will? What about the ‘idolatry of literalism?” Exodus 35:2 proclaims that anyone who works on the Sabbath should be put to death spirit of the code or the letter of the code?

23. Theories of Ethics Religious Ethics • Plato (428-348 BCE) • cannot derive ethics from religion • Is something good because God says it is good, or does God say that it is good because it is good?

24. Theories of Ethics Religious Ethics • Plato (428-348 BCE) • God says it is good: what if God decides that murder is good • Good because it is good: are values independent of God? Do we need to appeal to God to justify them?

25. Theories of Ethics Religious Ethics Matthew 19:24: “It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than it is for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God.”—How should we interpret this? Can a person be a good Catholic if they practice birth control? Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881): “if God is dead, everything is permitted.”

26. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics • ethics centered on fulfilling obligations • duty-based ethics = deontological approach • morality of an action is judge by adherence to rule

27. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics • What about rights? • duty/rights connected • duty not to steal/right to property • right to life/ duty not to kill • How are these justified?

28. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Immanuel Kant, 1724-1804 • duties are not arbitrary and can be determined by reason • categorical imperative: categorically imputes duties across situational variables

29. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” • "act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end and never merely as a means” • “every rational being must so act as if he were through his maxim always a legislating member in the universal kingdom of ends.”

30. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • “act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” • What would happen if everyone did that? • i.e. promises • consistency

31. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics special pleading: excuses to justify our own behavior that we would not find acceptable in others “If you want to know the foulness of lying, consider the lying of someone else and how you shun it and despise the man who lies and regard his communication as foul. Do the same with regard to all your vices, for you do not realize the foulness of your own case, but from someone else’s.” --Al Ghazali, 1058-1111

32. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Golden Rule • Buddhism:Hurt not others in ways that you yourself would find hurtful." Udana-Varga 5:18 • Confucianism: "Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you" Analects 15:23 • Hinduism: This is the sum of duty: do not do to others what would cause pain if done to you. Mahabharata 5:1517 

33. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Golden Rule • Islam: “No one of you is a believer until he desires for his brother that which he desires for himself. “ Sunnah • Jainism: "In happiness and suffering, in joy and grief, we should regard all creatures as we regard our own self." Lord Mahavira, 24th Tirthankara • Judaism: "What is hateful to you, do not to your fellow man. This is the law: all the rest is commentary." Talmud, Shabbat 31a.

34. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Golden Rule • Taoism: “Regard your neighbor’s gain as your gain, and your neighbor’s loss as your own loss.”     Tai Shang Kan Yin P’ien • Zoroastrianism: “That nature alone is good which refrains from doing another whatsoever is not good for itself.” Dadisten-I-dinik, 94,5

35. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Veil of Ignorance: John Rawls, 1921-2002 Assume that you arrive at the bargaining table with no knowledge whatsoever of your social status, economic power, ethnicity, religion or gender. Then, asks Rawls, what kind of society would you want to set up?

36. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Values & Dignity • Kant: no individual should be given preferential treatment/ no individual should be discriminated against • never right to sacrifice an individual’s life for the greater good

37. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Values & Dignity • Dual Concept of the Self • Individual is one among many but also a me • should never be treated as a mere means to an end

38. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Values & Dignity • Kant: difference between objects and humans • objects have value • humans have dignity

39. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Moral Value • moral value of an action determined by motive for which it is done not the consequences that derive from it—accident v. revenge • actions should be motivated by reason not feeling • what if you feel like helping Person A, but not Person B? • only do good things when you want to

40. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics Moral Value Motives for Doing Good expect something in return sympathy duty

41. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Criticisms: • moral absolutism, i.e. lying • rule worship • respect traffic, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re late for work • respect traffic laws, but it’s OK to drive through red light if you’re rushing someone to the emergency room

42. Theories of Ethics Duty Ethics: Kantian Ethics • Criticisms: • conflicts of duty • If a person is unfaithful to their partner, should they confess and make their partner unhappy or say nothing and deceive them? • If your grandmother and a famous doctor are trapped in a burning building, do you rescue your grandmother because she is family or the doctor because she is more useful to society? • If your child is dying of a rare disease and you cannot afford the drugs to save him, are you justified in stealing the drugs?

43. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism Jeremy Bentham, 1748-1832 John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873 Moral Principle: the greatest happiness of the greatest number “It is the greatest good to the greatest number of people which is the measure of right and wrong.” --Jeremy Bentham

44. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism Moral Principle: the greatest happiness of the greatest number actions are right in so far as they tend to increase happiness and wrong in so far as they tend to decrease it “Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain.” --John Stuart Mill

45. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism Happiness = presence of pleasure and the absence of pain maximize pleasure minimize pain

46. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism democratic system rational theory: short-term & long-term egalitarian system

47. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism Criticisms: What is pleasure? ice cream, education, freedom, lack of responsibilities… What is happiness? “To be without some of the things you want is an indespensable part of happiness.” --Bertrand Russell

48. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism • Criticisms: • What is happiness? • you earn $50,000/year & four friends earn $25,000/year • you earn $100,000/year & your four friends earn $250,000/ year • Love & Marriage & Adultery?

49. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism • Criticisms: • Bad Pleasures: • malicious pleasures: derived from suffering of others • empty pleasures: do not help us develop as humans or obtain our full potential

50. Theories of Ethics Utilitarianism • Criticisms: • Judges Actions • right or wrong action depends on its outcome or consequences • what about the actions to get to the end • do means justify ends?