Realism & Early Modern Drama

1. Realism & Early Modern Drama

2. Realism, in the arts… • Refers to the accurate, detailed, unembellished depiction of nature or of contemporary life. • Rejects imaginative idealization in favor of a close observation of outward appearances. • Emphasizes: • detachment, objectivity, and accurate observation • lucid but restrained criticism of social environments and mores • a humane understanding underlying its moral judgments

3. Influences on Realism Realism was stimulated by several intellectual developments in the first half of the 19th century: • the anti-Romantic movement in Germany, with its emphasis on the common manas an artistic subject • Auguste Comte’s Positivist philosophy, which emphasized sociology’s importance as the scientific study of society • the rise of professional journalism, with its accurate and dispassionate recording of current events • the development of photography, with its capability of mechanically reproducing visual appearances with extreme accuracy All these developments stimulated interest in accurately recording contemporary life and society

4. Timeline • 1826 – One of the first appearances of the term ”realism” used to describe a doctrine based not upon imitating past artistic achievements, but upon the truthful and accurate depiction of life • 1850s – Literary realism asserts that the hero of a novel should be an ordinary man rather than an exceptional figure. • 1860s-1870s – Realism becomes an integral characteristic of the modern novel • Dickens, Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky • 1880s-1890s –Realism appears in drama • Ibsen, Chekhov, Shaw

5. Realism in the theatre • Steered theatrical texts and performances toward greater fidelity to real life • Rejected the complex and artificial plotting of the “well-made play” and instead treated themes and conflicts belonging to a real, contemporary society. • Dispensed with poetic language and extravagant diction, instead using action and dialogue that looked and sounded like everyday behavior and speech. • Had no use for the declamatory delivery and overblown virtuosity of past acting and replaced this style with one demanding natural movements, gestures, and speech. • Stanislavsky is the foremost pioneer of the new, realistic acting style • Realist drama also used stage settings that accurately reproduced ordinary surroundings. • Meiningen Ensemble is most influential in this respect

6. Wait…The “Well-Made” Play? • constructed according to certain strict technical principles • dominated European and American stages for most of the 19th century • continued to exert influence into the 20th century The formula, developed c. 1825 by French playwright Eugène Scribe, called for: • complex and highly artificial plotting • a build-up of suspense • a climactic scene in which all problems are resolved • conventional romantic conflicts were a staple subject • for example, a pretty girl must choose between a wealthy, unscrupulous suitor and a poor, but honest young man • Suspense is created by misunderstandings, mistaken identities, secret information (the young man is really of noble birth), lost or stolen documents, and similar contrivances Later critics, including Shaw, denounced such plays for exalting the mechanics of playmaking at the expense of honest characterizations and serious content

7. Henrik Ibsen1828–1906 • Introduced to the European stage a new order of moral analysis set against a realistic middle-class background • Arguably the 1st realist playwright Used: • economy of action • penetrating dialogue • rigorous thought In order to: • strip away character façades • make audiences reexamine their own assumptions and beliefs about societal norms and expectations

8. Ibsen – Key Works • A Doll’s House (1879) • a sheltered wife and mother decides to leave her family in order to learn how to be independent • Ghosts (1881) • deals with the power of ingrained moral contamination to undermine the most determined idealism • An Enemy of the People (1882) • Ibsen’s answer to critics in which the idealistic hero steadfastly speaks the truth regardless of the consequences • The Wild Duck (1884) • completely reverses his viewpoint by presenting a gratuitous, destructive truth-teller whose compulsion brings catastrophic misery on a family of helpless innocents • Hedda Gabler (1890) • remarkable for its nonjudgmental depiction of an immoral, destructive character, one of the most vividly realized women in dramatic literature • The Master Builder (1892) • juxtaposes the artist’s needs with those of society and examines the limits of artistic creativity

9. Meiningen Company • Founded 1866 by George II, duke of Saxe-Meiningen (a region of central Germany) • 1874 – first public performance • one of the first companies to stress the importance of the director • emphasized historical accuracy • achieved unprecedented authenticity in costuming and scenery • insisted on authentic materials for sets and costumes, much of which was custom made (remember, he was wealthy) • staged effectively realistic crowd scenes • introduced long, carefully planned rehearsals • no pressure for commercial success = no time constraints • this freedom from financial concerns inspires independent theatres • In 1890, feeling that the company had accomplished its objectives, the duke closed it.

10. George II, duke of Saxe-Meiningen • studied art during his youth • established his own court theatre group (1866) • served as producer, director, financial backer, and costume and scenery designer • Became known as the “Theatre Duke” • Inspired by the English theatre, particularly by actor Charles Kean who had toured Berlin in 1859 • sought to create a production style that unified the conception, interpretation, and execution of dramatic works

11. Meiningen Company legacy • 1881 – toured to London; presented three plays by Shakespeare and a number of German and non-German classics • Thereafter, performed in more than 35 European cities, including Moscow. • Its realistic productions profoundly affected the thinking of the Russian director Stanislavsky and the French director André Antoine, the two major proponents of stage realism • Marked the beginning of a new movement toward unified production, i.e., every element is chosen for its contribution to the overall effect • Director, rather than actor, now dominant

12. “Independent” Theatre Movement(Europe) • Independent as opposed to commercial theatre which is reliant on popular, and therefore financial, success • “The independent theatre movement in Europe is associated with the emergence of our contemporary drama. The Théâtre-Libre, the FreieBuhne, the Independent Theatre Society, and the Moscow Art theatre gave new playwrights – Ibsen, Hauptmann, Chekhov, Becque, Zola, and Shaw – an opportunity to undermine the entrenched puerile sentimentalism of the commercial theatre.” Hatlen, Theodore. “The Independent Theatre Movement in New York, 1890-1900.” Educational Theatre Journal. Vol. 15, No. 2 (May, 1963), pp. 136-142

13. Independent Theatre (cont’d)http://mahara.ulcc.ac.uk/artefact/file/download.php?file=131&view=9 • The independent theatre movement began in Paris in 1887 when a young actor, André Antoine, founded the Théâtre Libre. • In France, Émile Zola had long campaigned for a modern realistic theatre and Antoine established his venture to make this a reality. • Inspired by Antoine’s success similar theatres were founded in Berlin (1889) and London (1891)… • Otto Brahm, a theatre critic, was the leading figure in the efforts of the Freie Bühne which brought the new drama to Germany. • Dutch theatre critic, Jack Thomas Grein, and his Independent Theatre Society carried the dramatic revolution to London. • Antoine’s theatre last performed in 1894, Grein’s in 1898 and the Freie Bühne’s last production was in 1901.

14. Théâtre-Librefounded in Paris in 1887 by André Antoine • independent, private theatre • became the proving ground for the new naturalistic drama • Antoine, an amateur actor, was influenced by the naturalistic novels of Émile Zola and by the theatrical realism of the MeiningenCompany. • Antoine believed that environment shaped character and behavior, so he sought to create settings that would faithfully reflect every aspect of real life. • Although the Théâtre-Libre failed financially, it established a model of realistic theatre that had a profound influence upon independent theatres throughout Europe. • In 1894 Antoine, in severe financial debt, relinquished the Théâtre-Libre to another director, who ran it until 1896.

15. FreieBühnefounded by Otto Brahm in Berlin, 1889 • Founded for the purpose of staging new, naturalistic plays. • Like theThéâtre-Libre, Brahm’s company gave private performances to theatre subscribers only. • September 1889 – First production is HenrikIbsen’s Ghosts • October 1889 – presentsGerhart Hauptmann’s first play, Before Dawn, a tragedy of working-class people. • Hauptmann, who would go on to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1912, was the most important playwright introduced by the FreieBühne. • Although the FreieBühne was a success, it lasted for only three seasons, largely because Berlin’s commercial theatre had by then embraced the new theatrical movement of naturalism. But it inspired the creation of other private theatres and amateur groups.

16. The “Little Theatre” Movement • The United States’ adaptation of Europe’s independent theatre movement • Adopted techniques already widely accepted in Europe • Made greatest contribution between 1912–1920 by preparing audiences to accept new drama, acting style, and production techniques (“new stagecraft”) • Employed full-time (professional) directors, but… • Hired amateur actors, designers, and staff because… • Could not afford professionals – but, just as well, because… • Pros believed to be too dependent on melodramatic “tricks” of commercial theatre, and unable (or unwilling) to attempt new approaches • Little Theatres included: • Toy Theatre (Boston, 1912) • Chicago Little Theatre (1912) • The Provincetown Players (Massachusetts, 1915) • Neighborhood Playhouse (NYC, 1915) • Washington Square Players (NYC, 1915) • Detroit Arts and Crafts Theatre (1916)

17. The “New Stagecraft” • Develops in Europe toward the end of the 19th century • Begins to thrive in U.S. in the 1920s, popularized by Robert Edmond Jones • Realistic details and a focus on historical accuracy had resulted in scenery that too frequently became more important than the play itself, so… • There was movement away from ultra-realistic, painted stage sets and toward a more simple, three-dimensional set. • Simplification and suggestion; a kind of “simplified realism” • simple sets, symbolic colors, innovative lighting • Seeks to visually represent or suggest a play’s mood and spirit

18. The Provincetown Players1915 – 1929 • Began performing in 1915 in Provincetown, Massachusetts • Founding mission: the production of new and experimental plays • First plays were staged in members’ homes • Founding members were, initially at least, amateur theatre enthusiasts • In 1916 the group produced in New York City Eugene O’Neill’s Bound East for Cardiff and Thirst, thus launching the career of one of America’s most distinguished playwrights. • That winter the Provincetown Players took up residence in New York City’s Greenwich Village and for years thereafter discovered and developed the work of noted writers, designers, and actors includingauthor Edna St. Vincent Millay (Aria da Capo) • Flourished as a noncommercial theatre, stimulating the work of many theatrical talents that otherwise might have remained obscure.

19. Washington Square Players1915 – 1918 • Founded by amateurs (like the Provincetown Players) • Aimed to raise the quality of New York theatre by presenting cutting-edge European dramas (Ibsen, Shaw, Chekhov) and new American plays, including works by Eugene O'Neill and Susan Glaspell (a founding member of Provincetown) • Produced nearly 75 one-act and full-length plays in 3 years • Among those working with the group was Katharine Cornell, one of the most celebrated American stage actresses from the 1920s–1950s, often called the “first lady of the American theatre” • Most of the founders established the Theatre Guild in 1919 to continue the work begun by the Players.

20. The Theatre Guild • founded for the production of high-quality, noncommercial American and foreign plays • departed from the usual theatre practice in that its board of directors shared responsibility for choice of plays, management, and production • Following the world premiere of Heartbreak House in 1920, the guild became George Bernard Shaw’s American agent, producing 15 of his plays, including the world premiere ofSaint Joan. • Eugene O’Neillenjoyed a long association with the guild • Other American authors whose works were produced by the guild included Sidney Howard, William Saroyan, Maxwell Anderson, and Robert Sherwood—all Pulitzer Prize winners. • The Theatre Guild contributed significantly to American musical theatre, as well, by producing Porgy and Bess and by bringing Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II together for such collaborations as Oklahoma!

21. EUGENE O’NEILL1888–1953 • Son of famous actor James O’Neill • Studied playwriting at Harvard with George Pierce Baker • Bound East for Cardiff (1916), first play (a one-act) presented by Provincetown Players • Compelling characters in search of meaning and fulfillment • Experimented with different styles including realism, expressionism and symbolism • Beyond the Horizon - first full-length play (produced on Broadway 1920) • impressed critics with its tragic realism • won1stof his 4 Pulitzer prizes in drama • others were for Anna Christie,Strange Interlude, and Long Day’s Journey into Night • after Shakespeare and Shaw, O’Neill became the most widely translated and produced dramatist. • 1936, awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, the first time it had been conferred on an American playwright

22. Family’s Influence O’Neill’s plays were written from an intensely personal point of view, deriving directly from the scarring effects of his family’s tragic relationships • his mother and father, who loved and tormented each other • his older brother, who loved and corrupted him and died of alcoholism in middle age • O’Neill himself, caught and torn between love for and rage at all three.

23. Assessment(Thank you, Encyclopedia Britannica) O’Neill was the first American dramatist to regard the stage as a literary medium and the only American playwright ever to receive the Nobel Prize for Literature. Through his efforts, the American theatre grew up during the 1920s, developing into a cultural medium that could take its place with the best in American fiction, painting, and music. Until his Beyond the Horizon was produced, in 1920, Broadway theatrical fare, apart from musicals and an occasional European import of quality, had consisted largely of contrived melodrama and farce. O’Neill saw the theatre as a valid forum for the presentation of serious ideas. Imbued with the tragic sense of life, he aimed for a contemporary drama that had its roots in the most powerful of ancient Greek tragedies—a drama that could rise to the emotional heights of Shakespeare. For more than 20 years, both with such masterpieces as Desire Under the Elms, MourningBecomes Electra, and The Iceman Cometh and by his inspiration to other serious dramatists, O’Neill set the pace for the blossoming of the Broadway theatre.