ISLAM AND MODERN CIVILIZATION: A LEGACY OF UNIQUENESS

1. ISLAM AND MODERN CIVILIZATION: A LEGACY OF UNIQUENESS By ENGR. DAUDA AYANDA, MNSE

2. Islam and the west @Oxford  • HRH Prince Charles said in 1993 “If there is much misunderstanding in the West about the nature of Islam, there is also much ignorance about the debt our own culture and civilization owe to the Islamic world. It is a failure, which stems, I think, from the straight-jacket of history, which we have inherited. The medieval Islamic world, from central Asia to the shores of the Atlantic, was a world where scholars and men of learning flourished. But because we have tended to see Islam as the enemy of the West, as an alien culture, society, and system of belief, we have tended to ignore or erase its great relevance to our own history”

3. Aristotelianismtradition of philosophy • Inspiration from Aristotle • Initially rejected by Christians as heretical e.g St. Augustine rejected science because he believed the world is illusory and sinful. • In 1632, Galileo declared that the sun, not the earth, was at the centre of the universe. The papal court back then screamed heresy, and sent Galileo to papal Coventry until he died under house arrest in 1642. • Islamic Golden Age era translated the work and others into Arabic and develop a new knowledge from it. • Muslim philosophers such as Al-Kindi, Al-Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroespreserved the work. • Moses Maimonides, a Jew, adopted Aristotelianism from these Islamic scholars and became the basis of Jewish Scholastic Philosophy

4. ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE • Abbasid historical period beginning in the mid 8th century lasting until the Mongol conquest of Baghdad in 1258. • House of Wisdom known by two names – Bayt al-Hikmah and Dar al-Hikmah was a library, translation institue and academy. • Influenced by the Qur'anic injunctions and hadith such as "the ink of a scholar is more holy than the blood of a martyr" that stressed the value of knowledge. • Arab world became an intellectual center for science, philosophy, medicine and education • Paved way for Rennaissance in Europe and subsequent Western Industrial civilization

5. Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi (ALBUCASIS) • An ArabMuslimphysician who lived in Al-Andalus, Spain • Described by many as the father of modern surgery. • His greatest contribution to medicine is the Kitab al-Tasrif, a thirty-volume encyclopedia of medical practices. • first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, and the first physician to identify the hereditary nature of haemophilia. • In Pharmacy and Pharmacology, he pioneered the preparation of medicines by sublimation and distillation • In On Surgery and Instruments, he draws diagrams of each tool used in different procedures to clarify how to carry out the steps of each treatment • In the 14th century, the French surgeon Guy de Chauliac quoted al-Tasrif over 200 times. PietroArgallata (d. 1453) described Abū al-Qāsim as "without doubt the chief of all surgeons"

6. ALI IbnSînâ (Avicenna) • A Persian polymath who wrote almost 450 works on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. • His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine,which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities • He described the contagious nature of tuberculosis, symptoms and complications of diabetes; how to effectively test new medicines; benefits of exercise to health among others.

7. ALI IbnSînâ (Avicenna)……CONTD… • He also discussed the formation of earth science; philosophy of science and the scientific method of inquiry. • In Mechanics, he developed an elaborate theory of motion. In optics, he was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that "if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite.“ • In Chemistry, he used distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence, forming the foundation of what later became aromatherapy and he explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists: • His psychology and theory of knowledge influenced William of Auvergne, Bishop of Paris and Albertus Magnus, while his metaphysics had an impact on the thought of Thomas Aquinas

8. al-Hasanibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) • an Arab scientist , polymath, mathematician, astronomer and philosopher who made significant contributions to the principles of optics, astronomy, mathematics, meterology, visual perception and the scientific method. • Described as the father of modern Optics, Ophthalmology, Experimental Physics and Scientific Method and the first Theoretical Physicist. • author of a monumental book on optics—the mathematical theory of vision, Kitâb al-Manâzir (De aspectibus). • wrote a treatise entitled Finding the Direction of Qibla by Calculation, in which he discussed finding the Qibla, where Salat prayers are directed towards, mathematically • His understanding of pinhole projection from his experiments appears to have influenced his consideration of image inversion in the eye and the early analysis of device called Camera Obscura

9. al-Hasanibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) …….CONTD… • His research in catoptrics (the study of optical systems using mirrors) centred on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. • He made the observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant, and investigated the magnifying power of a lens. • showed through experiment that light travels in straight lines, and carried out various experiments with lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection. • Alhazen's most original contribution was that after describing how he thought the eye was anatomically constructed, he went on to consider how this anatomy would behave functionally as an optical system.

10. al-Hasanibn al-Haytham (Alhacen or Alhazen) …….CONTD… • In Mathematics, he developed analytical geometry and the link between algebra and geometry; His contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers; solved problems involving congruences using what is now called Wilson's theorem and Chinese Remainder theorem • Ian P. Howard argued in a 1996 Perception article that Alhazen should be credited with many discoveries and theories which were previously attributed to Western Europeans writing centuries later • Influenced medieval European scientists and philosophers such as Roger Bacon, Robert Grosseteste, Witelo, Leonardo Di Vinci and Christian Huygens. But the book came into its own later, when it attracted the attention of mathematicians like Kepler, Descartes, and Huygens, thanks in part to Friedrich Risner’s edition published in Basel in 1572.

11. IbnKhaldun • Wrote Al-Muqaddima in the 14th century • built the foundation for Economics, Sociology and Anthropology • He developed the dichotomy of sedentary life versus nomadic life as well as the concept of a "generation", and the inevitable loss of power that occurs when desert warriors conquer a city. • On Economic growth, he stated that businesses owned by responsible and organized merchants shall eventually surpass those owned by wealthy rulers • The British philosopher Robert Flint wrote the following on IbnKhaldun: "as a theorist of history he had no equal in any age or country until Vico appeared, more than three hundred years later. Plato, Aristotle, and Augustine were not his peers, and all others were unworthy of being even mentioned along with him".

12. AL-KHWARIZMI • A Persian Mathematician, Astronomer and Geographer who greatly influenced mathematics in Europe. • algebra, deriving from the title of his AD 820 book Hisab al-jabrw’al-muqabala, Kitab al-Jabrwa-l-Muqabala ("The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing") are themselves Arabic loanwords • "Algebra" is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations • Latin translations of his work on the Indian numerals introduced the decimalpositional number system to theWestern world

13. AL-Khwarizmi (contd…) • Algorism and algorithm stem from Algoritmi, the Latin form of Al-Khwarizmi - his name. His name is also the origin of (Spanish) guarismo and of (Portuguese) algarismo, both meaning digit. • work consisting of approximately 37 chapters on calendrical and astronomical calculations and 116 tables with calendrical, astronomical and astrological data, as well as a table of sinevalues • Al-Khwārizmī'sZīj al-Sindhind also contained tables for the trigonometric functions of sines and cosine • He also wrote two books on using and constructing astrolabes

14. The missing links • Glubb (1969) states ‘the indebtedness of Western Christendom to Arab civilization was systematically played down, if not completely denied. A tradition was built up, by censorship and propaganda, that the Muslim imperialists had been mere barbarians and that the rebirth of learning in the West derived directly from Roman and Greek sources alone, without any Arab intervention’. • Draper (1875) noted ‘the systematic manner in which the literature of Europe has contrived to put out of sight our scientific obligations to the Muhammadans (Muslims) injustice founded on religious rancour and national conceit cannot be perpetrated forever….The Arab has left his intellectual heritage on Europe as, before long, Christendom will have to confess ’

15. The missing links (contd…) • Wickens (1976) said ‘In the broadest sense, the West’s borrowings from Middle East form practically the whole basic fabric of civilization. Without such fundamental borrowings from the Middle East’, he adds, ‘we should lack the following sorts of things among others (unless, of course, we had been quick and inventive enough to devise them all for ourselves): agriculture; the domestication of animals, for food, clothing and transportation; spinning and weaving; building; drainage and irrigation; road-making and the wheel; metal-working, and standard tools and weapons of all kinds; sailing ships; astronomical observation and the calendar; writing and the keeping of records; laws and civic life; coinage; abstract thought and mathematics; most of our religious ideas and symbols’, And he concluded that, ‘there is virtually no evidence for any of these basic things and processes and ideas being actually invented in the West’

16. Missing links (contd…) • Scott (1904) said ‘In Paris there were no pavements until the 13th century; in London none until the 14th; the streets of both capitals were receptacles of filth, and often impassable; at night shrouded in inky darkness; at all times dominated by outlaws; the haunt of the footpad, the nursery of the pestilence, the source of every disease, the scene of every crime’ • Draper (1875) said ‘as late as 16th century England, there were highwaymen on the roads, pirates on the rivers, vermin in abundance in the clothing and beds…The population, sparse as it was, was perpetually thinned by pestilence and want…’

17. ISLAMOPHOBIA • In 1996, the Runnymede Trust established the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, chaired by Professor Gordon Conway stated 8 views: • Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change. • It is seen as separate and "other." It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them. • It is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist. • It is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a clash of civilizations.

18. ISLAMOPHOBIA (CONTD…) • It is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage. • Criticisms made of "the West" by Muslims are rejected out of hand. • Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society. • Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.

19. Harvard law school expression of justice • posted a verse of the Holy Quran at the entrance of its faculty library in early 2013, describing the verse as one of the greatest expressions of justice in history. • “O you who have believed, be persistently standing firm in justice, witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives. Whether one is rich or poor, Allah is more worthy of both. So follow not [personal] inclination, lest you not be just. And if you distort [your testimony] or refuse [to give it], then indeed Allah is ever, with what you do, Acquainted” – Surat Al-Nisai verse 135 • Quotations were selected from a pool of over 150 contributions from law school faculty, staff and students. Librarians at the Law School Library researched the historical context and authenticity of each quotation and developed a website to share this research with visitors to the art installation.

20. ISLAMIC BANKING IN THE WEST • The Vatican newspaper Osservatore Romano in 2009 voiced its approval of Islamic finance that banks should look at the rules of Islamic finance to restore confidence amongst their clients at a time of global economic crisis. • According to Gatestone Institute in 2011, the European Union is emerging as a major center of Islamic finance, based on Islamic Shariah law. • "I want London to stand alongside Dubai and Kuala Lumpur as one of the great capitals of Islamic finance anywhere in the world." — UK Prime Minister David Cameron, addressing the World Islamic Economic Forum in London on October 29, 2013.

21. SHARIAH IN WEST • Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers, the Lord Chief Justice, strongly backed Rowan Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, over his suggestion earlier in 2008 that aspects of sharia should be adopted in Britain. The archbishop's remarks sparked a national debate and led to calls for his resignation. • The official story of adoption of Sharia in UK came up about 2 weeks ago (March – April, 2014) whereby it was revealed that The Law Society -- the body which represents and advises solicitors in England and Wales -- has drawn up guidance for its members on how to draw up wills in accordance with Islamic law.

22. HIJAB in the west • "Edmonton police set to unveil official hijab that Muslim officers can wear on duty": The headscarf will be black, worn underneath the standard police cap, affixed with tear-away snaps, and designed so as not to get in the way during a struggle. The Canadian military already offers a hijab option. (November 24, 2013) • On July 1, 2012, the Norwegian Defense Ministry began allowing uniformed soldiers to wear religious headgear such as hijabs, turbans and kippahs. In addition to headgear, soldiers are now also allowed to wear armbands containing religious symbols that have been engraved or mounted. • "Police adopt uniform hijab": The Leicestershire Constabulary in Great Britain have incorporating a hijab into the police uniform for female officers on patrol in the hopes that more Muslim women will apply to the force. The hijab is plain black and made out of flame-retardant material. It is to be worn below a standard police hat. Leicestershire appears to be the third U.K. police force to take this step, after the Metropolitan and Thames Valley. (January 31, 2009)

23. BREASTFEEDING • “And the mothers should suckle their children for two whole years for him who desires to make complete the time of suckling; and their maintenance and their clothing must be– borne by the father according to usage; no soul shall have imposed upon it a duty but to the extent of its capacity; neither shall a mother be made to suffer harm on account of her child, nor a father on account of his child, and a similar duty (devolves) on the (father’s) heir, but if both desire weaning by mutual consent and counsel, there is no blame on them, and if you wish to engage a wet-nurse for your children, there is no blame on you so long as you pay what you promised for according to usage; and be careful of (your duty to) Allah and know that Allah sees what you do.” [Q2:233].

24. BREASTFEEDING (CONTD…) • Scientists discovered recently that the child’s complete nutrition is from her mother’s breast milk, as it is not completed unless the mother suckled her child for two complete years! • World Health Organization recommends exclusive breastfeeding for the first six months of life, after which “infants should receive nutritionally adequate and safe complementary foods while breastfeeding continues up to two years of age or beyond ” as reported in WHO (2003) Global Strategy for Infant and Young Child Feeding, Geneva. • Yet, a new medical conference came with a conclusion that the ideal period of sucking is two years, because in this age the child is in urgent need of immunity elements to develop immunity systems which are only found in mother’s milk. • Why did it take the turn of millennium before WHO, Academy of Pediatrics, US Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality etc to align their scientific reasoning with what Almighty Allah has revealed to Prophet Muhammed (through Angel Gabriel) in 14 hundred centuries ago?

25. UNIVERSALITY OF ARABIC LANGUAGE • Arabic languages are Central Semitic languages, most closely related to Aramaic, Hebrew, Ugaritic and Phoenician.. • Official language of United Nation and UNESCO • Second official language in Israel next to Hebrew • Widely spoken language in Nazareth, Galillee and Jerusalem • Official language in Yorubaland, Hausaland, Western and Northern Africa before the advent of colonialists

26. English language loanwords from arabic • Common words like caliber, camphor, candy, chemistry, coffee, café, cotton, fanfare, admiral, adobe, alkali, arsenal, average, almanac, azure, hazard, lemon, lime, lute, giraffe, guitar, magazine, mattress, mafia, orange, scarlet, safari, sugar, syrup, tarriff, typhoon, vizier, zenith, zero • Botanical names entered medieval Latin texts from Arabic. • Azadirachta, Berberis, Cakile, Carthamus,Cuscuta, Doronicum, Galanga, Musa, Nuphar, Ribes, Senna, Taraxacum, Usnea,Physalisalkekengi, Meliaazedarach, Terminaliabellerica, Terminaliachebula,Cheiranthuscheiri, Piper cubeba, Phyllanthusemblica, Peganumharmala, Salsolakali, Prunusmahaleb, Daturametel, Daphne mezereum, Rheum ribes, Jasminumsambac,Cordiasebestena, Operculinaturpethum, Curcuma zedoaria

27. ISLAM IN YORUBALAND • According to Akinjogbin (1971), Islam had come to the ancient Yoruba kingdom of Oyo by the 14th century through the trans-Saharan trade. • The origin of the word ‘Yoruba’ has been traced to Arabic writers such as Ahmad Baba (1627 in his mi’raj al-su’ud) and Muhammed Bello (1837 in his infaq al-maysur) both of whom were reported among the earliest to name the people in Oyo ‘yariba’, ‘yaruba’, ‘yarba’ at a time when they are still referring to themselves by their diverse ethnic identities (Ogunbiyi, 2003). • According to Ade-Ajayi (1960), the first and the only literacy in Yorubaland before the arrival of Christianity in the nineteenth century was in Arabic

28. ISLAM IN YORUBALAND (CONTD…) • Kenneth Dike said (1965) ‘Arabic is in many respects the classical language of West Africa’ • Kenneth Dike (1965) ‘As a historian myself, I have taken the keenest interest in this development, for it is through the aid of these Arabic documents and those written in African languages in Arabic scripts that the scholar will be aided. It had been a revelation to the whole world of scholarship to realize for the first time that Africa before the European penetration far from being a “dark continent” was in fact a continent where the light of scholarship shone brightly as the Arabic works now being discovered bear testimony….’ • Hunwick (2006) refers to Arabic as the Latin of Africa in view of the role it has played in West Africa and some parts of Africa over the past millennium as Latin did in Europe in the medieval era.

29. ISLAM IN YORUBALAND (contd…) • First mosque built in Oyo-Ile in 1550 AD • Islam was established in Iwo in 1655AD • Islam spread to Iseyin in 1760AD • First mosque in Lagos is 1774AD • Saki in 1790, Oshogbo in 1889 • Ibadan, Abeokuta, Ijebu-Ode, Ikirun and Ede knew about Islam before Fulani Jihad (Gbadamosi, 1978)

30. YORUBA LOANWORDS FROM ARABIC • Olohun i.e. God or Deity rendered from Allahu (Ar. إسم الجلال – الله) • Alaafia i.e. Good, Fine Or Health(y) from derivative Al-Aafiah (Ar. العافية) • Baale i.e. husband or spouse derived from Ba'al (Ar. بعل) • Sanma i.e. heaven or sky adopted for Samaa` (Ar. السماء) • Alubarika i.e. blessing used as Al-Barakah (Ar. البركة) • Wakati i.e. hour or time formed from Waqt (Ar. وقت) • Asiri i.e. Secrete or Hidden derivative of As-Sirr (Ar. السرّ) • Others include Woli, Adua, Alebu, keferi, kadara, Yigi etc

31. Fastest growing religion in the world • 2014 saw the publication of the 30th Annual Status of Global Mission in the International Bulletin of Missionary Research. In this, the latest edition, the researchers estimate Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world: 1.81% per year vs. 1.53% for the 20 million Sikhs and 1.29% for Christianity. • According to Gatestone Institute, 2011,  "Islam is the fastest-growing religion in England and Wales, according to new census data  that the British government says "describes the defining characteristics of the population, who we are, how we live and what we do." • According to the Guinness Book of World Records, Islam is the world’s fastest-growing religion by number of  conversions each year. • According to the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the World Christian Database as of 2007 has Islam as the fastest-growing religion in the world

32. WHAT ORIENTALISTS SAY ABOUT ISLAM • Thomas Carlyle in his book “Heroes and Hero Worship”, stated: “How one man single-handedly, could weld warring tribes and wandering Bedouins into a most powerful and civilized nation in less than two decades…..The lies (Western slander) which well-meaning zeal has heaped round this man (Muhammed) are disgraceful to ourselves only” • Mahatma Gandhi, statement published in 'Young India,'1924. I wanted to know the best of the life of one who holds today an undisputed sway over the hearts of millions of mankind.... I became more than ever convinced that it was not the sword that won a place for Islam in those days in the scheme of life. It was the rigid simplicity, the utter self-effacement of the Prophet the scrupulous regard for pledges, his intense devotion to his friends and followers, his intrepidity, his fearlessness, his absolute trust in God and in his own mission. These and not the sword carried everything before them and surmounted every obstacle. When I closed the second volume (of the Prophet's biography), I was sorry there was not more for me to read of that great life.

33. What orientalist says about islam • Dr Laura VecciaVaglieri wrote “Apologia dell’ Islamismo” translated into English as “Interpretation of Islam” (pp. 33-34). • she wrote “Thanks to Islam, paganism in its various forms was defeated. The concept of the universe, the practices of religion and social customs were each liberated from all the monstrosities which had degraded them, and human minds were made free from prejudices. Mankind finally realized its dignity and humbled itself before the Creator, the Lord and Master of all mankind…Man became the servant of Allah alone and towards another free man. Each Muslim was distinguished from other Muslims not by reason of birth or any other factor not connected with his personality, but by his greater fear of God, his good deeds, his morals and intellectual qualities”. She also stated “It was, therefore, neither by means of violence of arms nor through the pressure of obtrusive missionaries that caused the great and rapid diffusion of Islam, but above all, through the fact that this book (Qur’an) presented by the Muslims to the vanquished, with the liberty to accept it or reject it, was the Book of God, the Word of Truth, the greatest miracle Mohammed could show to those in doubt and to those who remained stubborn. The strength of this message was its crystal clear simplicity and marvelous easiness. For Islam reached out to the soul of the people without having recourse to long explanations or involved sermons”

34. LEGACY OF UNIQUENESS • Rev. Bosworth Smith said in his book, Mohammed and Mohammedanism, published in London, that “Al-Quran as a miracle of purity of style, of wisdom and of truth, it is the one miracle claimed by Mohammed, his standing miracle, he called it, AND A MIRACLE INDEED IT IS!” • New Catholic Encyclopedia. In an article under the subject of the Qur'an, the Catholic Church states: "Over the centuries, many theories have been offered as to the origin of the Qur'an... Today no sensible man accepts any of these theories!!" Now here is the age-old Catholic Church, which has been around for so many centuries, denying these futile attempts to explain away the Qur'an.

35. ISLAM AND THE WEST @oxford • HRH Prince Charles said in 1993 "... Islam can teach us today a way of understanding and living in a world which Christianity itself is poorer for having lost. At the heart of Islam is its preservation of an integral view of the universe. Islam refuses to separate man and nature, religion and science, mind and matter, and has preserved a metaphysical and unified view of ourselves and the world around us... . But the west gradually lost this integrated vision of the world with Copernicus and Descartes and the coming of the scientific revolution ."

36. THANK YOU ALL

37. Further study • 1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in our World. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation, UK, 2nd Edition, 2007. (www.muslimheritage.com) • BBC 2 (16 February 2004) What the Ancients Did for Us: The Islamic World. • Burnett, Charles (2004) Arabic Medicine in the Mediterranean (www.MuslimHeritage.com). • Charles M. Falco (2007) “Ibn al-Haytham and the Origins of Computerized Image Analysis”. The 2007 International Conference on Computer Engineering & Systems (ICCES'07) Cairo, Egypt. November 27-29, 2007 (Available online for download.) • FSTC (2001) Pharmacology in the Making (www.MuslimHeritage.com). • Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics. Taylor & Francis. p. 9. ISBN978-1-136-95960-8. Retrieved 26 August 2012. • Lindberg, DC (1996) “The Western Reception of Arabic Optics”, in R Rashed (ed.), Encyclopedia of History of Arabic Science, Routledge, London.

38. Further study (contd…) • Vartan Gregorian, "Islam: A Mosaic, Not a Monolith", Brookings Institution Press, 2003, pg 26–38 ISBN 0-8157-3283-X • Wikipedia on AL-HAYTHAM, Available online at < en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alhazen> • Wikipedia on AL-KHWARIZMI, Available online at < en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muḥammad_ibn_Mūsā_al-Khwārizmī‎> • Wikipedia on AL-ZAHRAWI, Available online at < en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_al-Zahrawi‎ > • Wikipedia on ISLAMIC GOLDEN AGE, Available online at < http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age> • Sir John Glubb: A Short History of the Arab Peoples, Hodder and Stoughton, 1969, pp.289 • J.W. Draper: A History of the Intellectual Development of Europe; 2 Vols: London, 1875; revised ed; Vol2; p.42. • G.M. Wickens: ‘What the West borrowed from the Middle East,’ in Introduction to Islamic Civilization, edited by R.M Savory, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1976, pp.120-5.

39. Further study (contd…) • S.P. Scott: History of the Moorish Empire; in 3 vols; The Lippincot Company; Philadelphia; 1904 • S. Zaimeche: Aspects of the Islamic Influence on Science and Learning in the Christian West (12th-13th Century), Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization, 2003 • I. A. Akinjogbin, “The Expansion of Oyo and the Rise of Dahomey 1600-1800,” in History of West Africa, 2 vols., ed. J. F. Ade-Ajayi and M. Crowder (London: Longman, 1971), • I. A. Ogunbiyi: The Search For A Yoruba Orthography Since The 1840s: Obstacles To The Choice Of The Arabic Script, Sudanic Africa, 14, 2003, 77-102 • J.F. Ade-Ajayi: How Yoruba was reduce to writing, Odu 8 • K. Dike: Opening Remarks in Hunwick J. O. Report of a Seminar on the Teaching of Arabic in Nigeria, Ibadan and Kano, 1965. • J. Hundwick: West Africa, Islam and the Arab World Studies in Honour of Basil Davidson. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2006. • T.G.O. Gbadamosi: The Growth of Islam among the Yoruba, 1841 – 1908. London: Longman Group (Ltd.), 1978.

40. Further study (contd…) • Islamic Banking • <http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-24722440> •  <http://www.presstv.com/detail/2013/10/29/331882/british-pm-to-unveil-islamic-bond-plan/> • Shariah • <http://rt.com/news/sharia-law-uk-legal-713/#.UzDlpko3RdQ.twitter > • <http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/2242340/Muslims-in-Britain-should-be-able-to-live-under-Sharia-law-says-top-judge.html>. • <http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2587215/Sharia-Law-enshrined-British-legal-lawyers-guidelines-drawing-documents-according-Islamic-rules.html> • <http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/4246/uk-sharia-law> • Harvard University expression of justice http://library.law.harvard.edu/justicequotes/explore-the-room/west/

41. Further study (contd…) • Hijab <http://www.edmontonjournal.com/news/Edmonton+police+approve+newly+designed+uniform+hijab+female+officers/9257918/story.html> • < http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/3561/europe-hijab> • <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/25/AR2008032502295.htm> • <http://www.modernghana.com/news/502343/1/hijab-persecuting-nigerian-muslim-women.html> • Conversion to Islam • < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/religion/8238812/Surge-in-Britons-converting-to-Islam.html> • http://www.christianvoice.org.uk/index.php/islam-growing-at-astronomical-rate-in-uk/ • http://voiceofrussia.com/news/2013_05_17/In-10-years-Islam-could-be-new-Christianity-in-UK-census-analysis/ • <http://realtruth.org/articles/253-wice.html>