MODULE : INTRO TO PERSPECTIVE LEARNING

1. MODULE : INTRO TO PERSPECTIVE LEARNING

2. CRITICAL THINKING AND COMMUNICATION THE USE OF REASON IN ARGUMENT

3. CLAIMS AND PROPOSITION CHAPTER FOUR

4. THE NATURE OF CLAIMS AND PROPOSITIONS • All arguments consist of claims and propositions • They help to define and focus the direction of a discussion • Argument claims are the end point of an individual argument • They are supported by reasoning and evidence and focus on a single issue or idea • While arguing, many different arguments may be developed and each argument has a claim

5. PROPOSITIONS • Propositions are main claims that serve as the principal claim of an extended argument • They are the primary point made by the arguer • They focus the field of discussion • They define and limit the issues available to arguers in a dispute • PROPOSITION ARENAS • Issues are things to consider when engaged in critical thinking and reflection • Issues are the various points of potential disagreements related to a proposition

6. PROPOSITION ARENAS ( contd …) • They set the boundary of acceptable and reasonable issues relevant to the topic • This is the propositional arena- the ground for dispute and includes all the issues for controversy within a given proposition • If irrelevant issues are allowed to become part of an argument, discussions and debates can be sidetracked

7. USING CLAIMS AND PROPOSITION • Arguers cannot address every potential issue in a proposition • Some issues may never be addressed , depending on the given audience, situation and level of dispute • Arguers should respond clearly stating their claim or proposition • Claims are usually stated in the beginning or at the end of the argument

8. USING CLAIMS AND PROPOSITION ( contd..) • Propositions emerge and are formulated over time • Propositions are initially not confirmed but become refined as the participants become knowledgeable in vital issues. • E.g . Prosecutors study the case before bringing charges, doctors study the patients symptoms before issuing a diagnosis.

9. FORMULATING A PROPOSITION

10. CONTROVERSIALITY • All claims and propositions should be controversial ( arguable ) • It states a position currently not accepted by the audience • Always choose a subject that will be important and controversial ( otherwise there is nothing to argue about ) • Arguers should provide recipients with information about the issues • Arguers should provide sufficient depth to the issues to develop the recipients capabilities to make reasoned judgements about the arguer • The controversiality of a proposition may depend on what issues are timely and of significant public interests

11. CLARITY • Clarity is how well a claim focuses arguments on a particular set of issues • People need to know where they are starting so as to decide when they have finished • AMBIGUOS TERMS • One major confusion in stating propositions is the use of ambiguous (uncertain) terms • Each party will interpret the proposition differently • Each arguer has a different starting point, and going in a direction unexpected by the other

12. DOUBLE BARRELED STATEMENTS • Double barreled claims advance two or more claims at one time and often leads arguers in separate directions • The relevant issue for each part of the claim are different • Since they include issues from two or more propositional arenas, arguers cannot focus and define the area under dispute.

13. EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE BARRELED CLAIMS Double-barreled claim : The Malaysian government should cut the income tax rate to stimulate the economy Claim 1 : The Malaysian Government should cut the income tax rate Claim 2 : Cutting the income tax rate will stimulate the economy

14. EXAMPLES OF DOUBLE BARRELED CLAIMS ( contd..) Double-barreled claim : If companies test employees for drugs, they should also test for alcohol, which is the biggest drug of all. Claim 1: Alcohol is the “biggest”( most frequently used ) drug of all Claim 2 : Drug testing should be combined with alcohol testing by companies that test for substance abuse

15. BALANCE • It’s the requirement that the issues for and against a proposition be included equally in the propositional field • When the topic is clearly stated , both proponents and opponents can discuss freely • In law charges are stated neutrally and agreed upon before the trial can proceed • In business management , decision makers usually discuss a specific policy or course of action • CHALLENGE • Means that arguer’s claim confronts recipients’ existing values, beliefs or behaviors • A proposition for argument should challenge what people already • believe or do

16. CLASSIFICATION OF CLAIMS Type Fact Value Policy Expression Implicit Explicit Emergence Emergent Predetermined

17. Factual Claims • Makes inferences about past, present or future conditions or • relationships • Relatively easy to prove because the needed information is generally available and clear E.g. Hakim weighs more than Len • Relational Claims - attempts to establish a causal relation between one condition and another , e.g. A diet high in fat will harm your health

18. Factual Claims ( contd..) • Predictive Claims – based on assumptions that past relationships and conditions will be repeated in the future, e.g. Every home in Malaysia will have an Internet Connection by 2015 • Historical Facts Claims – rest on the strength of probable evidence to which we have access, e.g. There was no evidence of weapons of mass destruction in Iraq

19. Value Claims • Value Claims assess the worth or merit of an idea, object or • practice according to standards or criteria supplied by the arguer • Values are fundamental positive or negative attitudes toward certain end states of existence or broad modes of conduct such as equality and honesty • Value claims focus on the values held by the participants in a dispute • Values govern our choices and indicate what we ought to do • Examples • Stem cell research is beneficial to society • Grading undermines the quality in education • Censorship of Internet for religious insults is justified

20. Policy Claims • Policy claims call for a specific course of action and focus on whether a change in policy or behavior should take place • The claims focus on action and /or policies • Frequently deal with complex social. Political and economic problems that rely on an understanding of values and facts • Policy claims imply dissatisfaction with the status quo or a belief that a change in behavior would be beneficial • Examples • Malaysia should legalize gay marriages • Johor State should pass a 1% sales tax to fund schools • We should rent this apartment

21. EXPRESSION OF CLAIM • Explicit Claims • Such claims are stated clearly and publicly such that both the arguer and recipient are equally aware of their meaning • Examples : • Schools should sack students who bring any weapons to school • 2. The drinking age should be reduced to eighteen • 3. Ganja should be decriminalized ( still illegal but not • treated as criminal offence )

22. EXPRESSION OF CLAIM ( contd..) • Implicit Claims • Implicit claims are not stated publicly and are understood by the participants engaged in the argument • Example: ( A conversation between a married couple ) • John : I can’t believe you are home late again. This is ridiculous • Jane : Work has been really busy this month. I can’t help it . • John : Work should not define your life . You are always putting • in a sixty hour week. • Jane : I’ll try to do better , but I need a little patience now. • Implicit Claim here could be : • We need to spend more time together • Because you are not working , I need to work harder to make ends meet. • You are ignoring your family .