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1. Legal French

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2. Historyof Legal French: Beginnings 842 OathofStrasbourg: Latin and Old French 12th and 13th c: Useofvernacularsinthechancelleriesof State beganspreadingthroughout Europe PhiliptheFair (1268-1314) introducedFrench to the royal chancellery; the king’s examplespread to thechancelleriesofdukesandcounts, city administrationsandprivatedocuments The king stressestheimportanceofdropping Latin fromtheadministrationoflawandgovernment
3. Historyof Legal French: Beginnings In 13th c. Frenchwidelyusedin northern France Mid-13th c. Frenchwasestablishedlanguage for legal documents, at leastinthe north 13th c.: over 2,000 documentsdrawnupinFrench JudicialmatterspleadedinFrenchintheMiddleAgesin northern France
4. Historyof Legal French: Beginnings ParlementofParis, the royal court goingback to the King’s Council, became a specialised court organ inmid-13th c. SittingsoftheParlement – heldinFrenchfromitsfoundations, itsjudgmentsdeliveredinthe same language, but recordedin Latin inorderto beenforcedthroughoutthecountry; witnessstatements – recordedin Latin advocates – formallyforbiddenfrompleadingin Latin; eventhoserepresentingtheUniversityofParis had to use French
5. Historyof Legal French: Beginnings ExpansionofFrenchbeganaftertheHundredYearsWar (1337-1453), which had increasedthe power ofthe king of France Linguisticunification – highlyusefulfromthestandpointoftheexerciseof power
6. Historyof Legal French: Beginnings Legal andadministrativelanguageofParisbegan to challenge Latin earlierthananyotherlanguage Therefore, thegovernmentandthecourtsplayed a role of prime importanceinthedevelopmentofFrench; a largepartoftheirvocabularytransmitted to ordinarylanguage Frenchorthographyalsogoesback to thepracticesofadministrativeandjudicialorgans
7. Moderntimes Status of Latin weakened as a resultoftheReformation TheHumanists set upthe style ofthe Roman classics as the model – crippledthe use of Latin for everydaypurposes 16th and 17th c. Frenchousted Latin ingovernmentandcourts
8. Languagelegislation DecreeofVillers-Cotterêt (1539): judgementsandproceduralactswere to bepronounced, recordedanddeliveredtothepartiesin “theFrenchmothertongueandnotinanyotherform”. 1629 FrenchbecamethelanguageofChurchcourts Languageofculture, literature, science
9. Universities At universities, the change wasslower Inmid-17th c. Frenchlawfaculties – stillused Latin, traditionallanguageof Roman law, iuscommuneand canon law In 1679 Louis XIV had Frenchlawincludedinlawfacultyprogrammes; somewhatlater, orderedthatthislawshouldbetaughtinFrench TeachingofFrenchlawinFrench- onlytrulylaunchedin 18th c. Legal thesesstillwrittenin Latin in 19th c.
10. DiscardingRegionalLanguages DecreeofLyon (1510) stillrefers to langue de pays DecreeofViller-Cotterêt (1539) speaksexplicitlyofFrench - endofthe use ofthe Romance languagesoftheMidi Judgementsandother legal documents had to bedrawnupinFrench, old languagesofprovincesexcluded; protestsinnon-Frenchspeaking regions At the time oftheRevolution, 25 millioninhabitants: 6 milliondidnotunderstandFrench, 6millionunderstood it at thebasiclevel, 10 million had a passableknowledgeofFrench
11. DiscardingRegionalLanguages Revolutionarydecreesobliged civil servants to use Frenchanddrawup all publicdocumentsin it French – thelanguageofthearmy Compulsorymilitary service, the press, postalservicesandrailwaysincreasedthemovementofthepopulationandconsolidatedthe central administration
12. QualityAssuranceof Legal Language Legal Frenchgraduallybecamepetrifiedandincreasinglydifficult to understand 1635 establishmentoftheAcadémieFrançaise – care for qualityassurance Académiefoundthe style oflawcourtsoutoffashion, over-technicalandevenincomprehensible; this led lawyers to sticktotheirtraditionallanguageeven more strongly
13. Styleofjudgments UntiltheRevolution, Frenchjudgmentslackedgrounds; reasons: 1) ParlementofParis – a high court, andstrenghteningitspositionbroughtabout power struggleswiththe king; thesestruggleswouldhavebeenaggravatedbyexplicitpresentationofgrounds for judgment, whichthe king mighthavefeltprovocative; 2) Requiringgroundswouldhavebeeninsulting to theauthorityof senior judges; as a result, publicastionofdecisionswasconsidereduseless, evenbanned
14. Styleofjudgments DuringtheRevolution, judgesbeganmotivatingtheirdecisionsagain, but groundswerelaconic, evenformal Court reasoningconsistedessentiallyofarticlesoflaw Inthe new ideology, in a judge’s work thequestiondidnoteven arise ofindependentlycreatinglaw – it involvedonlythemechanicalapplicationofstatutes Formalgrounds – referonly to statute articles, concealingthecreativeaspectoftheiractivities, theformationoflawbycases
15. Styleofjudgments Statute articlesoccupy a central place inthegroundsofjudgments: groundsofotherkindslesscommon Thefactthatthe Civil Procedure Coderequiresjudgments to bereasoned is notreflectedinthecontentofthegrounds
16. Globalisationof Legal French: Diplomacy Up to the 17th c. Latin wasthemainlanguageofinter-state relations Bilateralandmultilateraltreaties – drawnupin Latin Followingthe rise of France to a dominantposition, the use ofFrenchspreadintheinternational arena as a languageofdiplomacyandinternationallaw
17. Globalisationof Legal French: Diplomacy TheHoly Roman Empire insisted on the use of Latin, whileFrenchambassadorspresenteddocumentsinFrench TheConventionofVienna (1736) andtheTreatyofAix-la-Chapelle (1748) – drawnupinFrench From 1676, all ambassadorsof France spokeFrenchintheircountriesofaccreditation
18. Globalisationof Legal French: Diplomacy Frenchspread to internationaltreatiestowhich France wasnot a party 18th c. internationaltreatiesin Latin – increasinglyrare DominanceofFrench – sostrongthat it wasusedincaseswhereactionwasdirectedagainst France or evenincasesinvolving her defeat: at theCongressofVienna (1815) FrenchremainedthelanguageofnegotiationsandTreatylanguage 1871, duringpeacenegotiationsfollowing Franco-Prussianwar, OttovonBismarckusedFrench
19. Globalisationof Legal French: Diplomacy Endof 18th c: the US decided to use onlyEnglishintheirdiplomaticrelations; 20th c. Englishbegan to threatenthepositionofFrenchininternationalrelations, andacquireddominanceinthisfield
20. Colonisation: Canada 16th c. France became a colonial power: coloniesin North America French Canada (1534-1760) British Canada (1760-1867) “Canadian Canada” (1867)
21. Colonisation: Canada Historyof legal language – closelylinked to legal translation Beforethe British conquest- Canadian French – highquality Afterthe British conquest - poortranslatorscorruptedthelanguage
22. Colonisation: Canada Endof 18th c. publiclawandthejudicialsysteminQuebecwereanglicised; thisrequiredrapidtranslationintoFrenchof a largenumberoflawsandother legal Englishtexts, to be applied to theFrench-speakingpopulation LawswerepreparedexclusivelyinEnglishuntil 1867 Translators – no specialisedtraining Fastidiousnessandrepetitivenessof legal English – repeatedinlegalFrenchofQuebec (e.g. il seralevé, perçu et payé à sa Majesté ‘it shallberaised, leviedandpaid to His Majesty’ – repetitionofsynonyms)
23. Colonisation: Canada Betweentheearly 1790’s andthemid-19th c. legal Frenchin Canada movedvery far fromthatin France French-Canadian legal languagebecameincreasinglyEnglish Legal English – expressed a completelydifferent legal culture French-Canadian legal texts – fullofanglicisms (acte ‘loi’ (act), délai ‘retard’ (delay); évidence ‘preuve’ (evidence), offence ‘infraction’ (offence)
24. Colonisation: Canada Actof Union (1840) prescribedthatEnglishwastheonlyofficiallanguagein Canada StrongresistanceofFrenchspeakers RecognitionofFrenchbypublicauthorities TheConstitutionof 1867 recognisedthelanguagerightsofFrenchspeakers 1960’s PeacefulRevolution – the status ofQuebecconsolidated
25. Colonisation: Canada Importanceof legal translationdecreasedthanks to autonomouspreparationoflawsinFrench Today: French is theonlyofficiallanguageinQuebec Quebec National Assemblyadopts all itslawsinFrench
26. Colonisation: Canada BothEnglishandFrench – officiallanguagesof Canada, but only at thelevelofthefederalgovernmentanditsinstitutions Legal textsofthe Canadian parliament – alwaystranslatedintobothlanguages Draftsof Canadian federallaws – workedoutsimultaneouslyinEnglishandFrench: co-drafting Thequalityofthe original draft – more easilyrevealedbycomparingthetwolanguageversionsthanbyexamining a singleversion
27. Colonisation: Canada Terminological work andtheprincipleofco-draftinghavefreed Canadian FrenchfromthepatronageofEnglish Canadian legislative work bringsfreshelementsintotheFrenchlanguagebecasuethespecificconditionsimposedby legal textsobligetheCanadians to becreators, surrenderingthementalcomfortcreatedbypreservingwhat is old andcertain
28. Colonisation: Africa 19th c. Frenchcoloniesin North AfricaandBlackAfrica TheMaghreb (Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco) – multilingual regions French – the sole officiallanguageoftheregionin 19th c.
29. Maghreb Intoday’s Maghreb, onlyArabic is theofficiallanguage; more peopletodaywith a commandofFrenchthan at theendofthecolonial era (French- languageofhighereducationandupwardsocialmobility)
30. Sub-SaharanAfrica French – sole officiallanguagein Benin, Burkina Faso, theDemocraticRepublicofCongo (Kinshasa), theRepublicofCongo (Brazzaville), theIvoryCoast, Gabon, Guinea, Mali, Senegal, Chad, Togo Traditionaljustice, based on customarylawandadministeredbyvillageelders – Africanlanguages InRwandaandBurundi- governmentandlocalcourts use regionallanguages, whilethe central authoritiesandhighercourts use French
31. Sub-SaharanAfrica Djibuti: justice is administeredinfourlanguages; highercourtsonlyoperateinFrench, whiletheIslamiccourts (shariacourts) always use Arabic Incourtsapplyingtraditionalcustomarylaw, procedurallanguages: Arabic, Somali or Afar. In all cases, judgments are drawnupinFrenchsothattheycanbeenforced
32. RadiationofFrench Legal Culture UniversityofParisfoundedin 13th c. Professorscontributedgreatly to thedevelopmentof Canon lawandiuscommune Addedimpetus to thetheoryofinternationalprivatelaw, esp. in 16th c. ManyFrench legal works translatedintoItalianin 19th c.
33. RadiationofFrench Legal Culture Fromtheearly 19th c. severalforeigncountrieshavereceivedFrenchcodes, particularlythe Civil Code (1804) The Civil Code - a model for correspondingcodesinvariouscountries (Rhineland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Italy, Spain, Portugal, theNetherlands, Poland, Rumania; Quebec, Louisiana, Latin American countries; Egypt, Ethiopia, Maghreb)
34. RadiationofFrench Legal Culture Frenchadministrativejusticecontributed to thebirthof German administrative legal scienceinthe late 19th c.
35. DefendingthePositionofFrench The Age ofEnlightenment – Frenchwassowidespreadthattheexpression “French Europe” wasused Politicaldominanceof France collapsedwiththedefeatof Napoleon Frenchlanguage – retreatin Europe ImportanceofEnglishand German on the rise
36. The Link betweenRelatedLanguages Frenchlaw – model abroad French legal influence – esp. stronginItaly Italianlawand legal sciencedevelopedinthedirectionindicatedbyFrenchmodels New Italian legal termsoftencamefrom France InItalian regions annexed to theFrench Empire (Piedmont, Parma, Piacenza, Liguria, Tuscany, Umbria, Lazio, Corsica) – decreesandadministrativecircularspublishedinbothFrenchandItalian
37. The Link betweenRelatedLanguages Rumanian Civil Code – almost a directcopyoftheFrench Civil Code NotrepealedevenduringtheCommunist period Rumanian civil lawterminology – based on French The legal ordersystematisedinthe same wayin all Romance countries; similaritiesin legal terms – notmisleading
38. Legal English Royal courtsofmedievalEnglandusedlawFrench, developed on thebasisof Norman French French – used as judiciallanguagein 13th and 14th c. Legal EnglishandlegalFrenchoften use the same terms, but the legal systematicsandconceptual systems – different Termsthatappearidentical do notnecessarily express the same concepts
39. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Belgium Homogeneityofthe legal languagesof France andBelgium – French-speakingpartofBelgiumhastendeduntilrecently to look for inspirationalmostexclusively to the legal cultureof France, andnot to the legal cultureofDutch-speakingBelgium, not to mentionthatoftheNetherlands
40. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Switzerland Legal FrenchofSwitzerland – partly original withrespect to Legal Frenchof France – legal traditionsessentiallyGermanic German – thelanguageofpreparationoflaws Zivilgesetzbuch (Civil Code) – translatedintoFrench FusionofGermanicand Romance legal cultures French-speaking legal circlesimitatethelanguageofthedominantGermaniclegalculture Beliefthatconcordanceofcontentofthe German andFrenchvariantsoflawscanonlybeguaranteedbyliteraltranslationofterms
41. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Switzerland Sometimes, themeaningof legal termsdiffersbetweenSwitzerlandand France Decisionsofthe Swiss Federal Court correspondintheirbasicstructure to theFrenchtradition; as to syntax, arrangingthetextinnumberedparagraphsinaccordancewiththe progress ofargumentationtheyfollowtheGermanictradition; decisionsdeliveredinbothFrenchand German
42. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Canada Quebec: commonlawofEnglishoriginintermingleswithlawofFrenchorigin: mixedlaw Publiclawcomesfromcommonlaw, privatelaw is mainlycontinental A French-style notarialprofession – animportant element oftheQuebec legal system Hierarchyofsourcesoflaw - continental
43. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Canada Quebec legal French: theneed to express traditionalcommonlawconceptsinFrenchand vice versa In some cases – termsfromFrenchlawobtained a meaningdifferentfromthatin France: dangerofmistakesandmisunderstandingsin communications with France
44. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Canada At the time whenEnglishcommonlawwascreated, legal circleswereusingFrench Institutionspeculiar to commonlaw – expressedinFrench Byhighlightingthe original formofcommonlawterms, it is possible to fashiontermsthat are authenticallyFrench, with a character at once old and new
45. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Canada Terminological work enabledcompilationof legal dictionariescontaining, inFrench, theterminologyofvariousbranchesofcommonlaw (e.g. lawofproperty, trusts, torts) “ThemixedcharacterofQuebec legal French is alsoinevidenceinthefactthat Latin maximsappearinginthisformofFrenchcomebothfromthetraditionalLatinofcommonlawyersandfromtheLatinused as establishedin France.”
46. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Africa Sub-SaharanAfrica – customarylaws TheFrenchcolonial power codified some ofthese Customarylaws – inadequate for modernsociety; completedbyFrenchlaw France abolishedcustomaryrulesiftheywereincontradictionwiththefundamentalEuropeanvalues, esp. incriminallaw FrenchCriminalCode – applicablethroughoutFrench-ruledAfrica
47. InternationalHomogeneityof Legal French: Africa FrenchusedinBlackAfrica . The same as thatin France North Africa – Islamictradition; Arabicquotationsin legal FrenchofMaghreb, notablyintraditionalbranchesoflawexpressingconceptsfromthesharia LocaltraditionsandconditionsalsoreflectedinAfrican legal French
48. Originofvocabulary Latin termstransmittedfromAntiquitybycontinuoustradition (loi<lex, juge <judex, justice < iustitia, délit < delictum, société<societas) Medieval Latin: contumace < contumax ‘contempt’, ‘non-appearancein court’ Greek: démocratie, politique Neologismswhichwereneverusedin Latin or Greek: autogestion, monoparental; today, legal neologismsofGraeco-Latin originoftencomefromEnglish
49. Originofvocabulary Italianloanwords: banqueroute, change Englishloanwords: franchising, dumping, leasing
50. Legal FrenchStyle: Textconstruction Cartesianspirit: textsconstructedin a logicalandmethodologicalway Legal rules – systematicallyassembledincodes
51. Legal FrenchStyle: TextualLevel Legal texts – difficult to understand: long, complicatedsentences, impersonalexpressions, passiveand negative forms (il n’est pas excluque ‘ it is notimpossiblethat’); limited use ofadjectives, abundanceofnouns; stereotypedphrases (e.g. dontacte ‘inwitness/faith/verification’), archaisms, petrifiedexpressions (ci-après ‘hereafter’, ledit, susdit ‘aforesaid’ Administrativelanguage - complimentspresented to addresseesinadministrativeletters
52. Legal FrenchStyle: TextualLevel Repetitionslessfrequentthanin legal English, but: e.g. nousavonsarrêté et arrêtons‘wehavedecidedand do decide’ Petrifiedphrases: executoryformulas for judicialdecisionssystematisingthegroundsofjudgments: attenduqueandconsidérantque Formrequirementsinverbs: groundsshouldalwaysbewrittenintheindicative; usingtheconditionalcanlead to thejudgmentbeingquashed
53. Improvingthequalityof legal language Associationpour le bon usagedufrançaisdans l’administration, Commission de modernisationdulangagejudiciaire, Centre d’enregistrement et de révisiondesformulairesadministratifs Termsfelt to bediscriminatory – replaced Courtsshouldeliminateuselessrepetitions Latin maximsshouldbereduced Clarityof legal language Today: struggleagainstAnglicisms
54. InternationalPositionToday In a largepartofthe world French is stilltheofficiallanguage (Canada, Northern, Western, Central Africa) In Europe: Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg EstablishmentoftheEuropeanCommunities – new importanceofFrench: one ofthreeprocedurallanguages Global organisations
55. Francophonia InternationalcommunitypromotingtheinterestsofFrenchculture Some countrieswhereFrench is theofficiallanguage – notmembersofFrancophonia (Algeria, Switzerland)
56. Internationalorganisations 49% internationalorganisationsaccordFrenchthe status ofofficiallanguage Internationalorganisations for legislative harmonisation: e.g. theHagueConference on PrivateInternationalLaw, chargedwithdraftingconventjonsinprivateinternationallawandinternationalprocedurallaw; until 1960, draftconventionsonlydrawnupinFrench; today, FrenchandEnglish are used
57. Internationalorganisations Unidroit (Institute internationalpour l’unificationdudrolitprivé) – originallyattached to theLeagueofNations, todayandinternationalorganisationaimingtounify national legislation on privatelaw; previouslyoperatedonlyinFrench; currently, severallanguagespossesstheofficial status; EnglishandFrenchused as workinglanguages; Revue de droit uniforme/UniformLawReview - bilingual
58. EU French – importantinpreparationof EU legal rules Workinglanguageof ECJ: decisionsdrawnupinFrench, althoughonlytheversionintheprocedurallanguage is authentic Frenchlanguagedivisionhas to translateintoFrench all documentslodgedbypartiesin a languageotherthanFrench Periodicals on Europeanlaw Legal cultureandtechniques - receivedfromtheoutsetfrom France: it is alwayssimple to describe a legal systembyusingthelanguagebywhichthesystemwasoriginallycreated