Lecture 3. Error Detection and Correction, Logic Gates

1. CS147 Lecture 3. Error Detection and Correction, Logic Gates 2x Prof. Sin-Min Lee Department of Computer Science

2. Chapter Goals • Error Detection and Correction • Identify the basic gates and describe the behavior of each • Combine basic gates into circuits • Describe the behavior of a gate or circuit using Boolean expressions, truth tables, and logic diagrams

3. Error Detection • EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy) • D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields • Error detection not 100% reliable! • protocol may miss some errors, but rarely • larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

4. Parity Checking Two Dimensional Bit Parity: Detect and correct single bit errors Single Bit Parity: Detect single bit errors 0 0

5. Sender: treat segment contents as sequence of 16-bit integers checksum: addition (1’s complement sum) of segment contents sender puts checksum value into UDP checksum field Receiver: compute checksum of received segment check if computed checksum equals checksum field value: NO - error detected YES - no error detected. But maybe errors nonetheless? More later …. Internet checksum Goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted segment (note: used at transport layer only)

6. Checksumming: Cyclic Redundancy Check • view data bits, D, as a binary number • choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G • goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that • <D,R> exactly divisible by G (modulo 2) • receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder: error detected! • can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits • widely used in practice (ATM, HDCL)

7. CRC Example Want: D.2r XOR R = nG equivalently: D.2r = nG XOR R equivalently: if we divide D.2r by G, want remainder R D.2r G R = remainder[ ]

8. What is a gate? • Combination of transistors that perform • binary logic • So called because one logic state enables • or “gates” another logic state • For each gate, the symbol, the truth table, • and the formula are shown

14. Computers • There are three different, but equally powerful, notational methods for describing the behavior of gates and circuits • Boolean expressions • logic diagrams • truth tables

15. Boolean algebra • Boolean algebra: expressions in this algebraic notation are an elegant and powerful way to demonstrate the activity of electrical circuits

16. Truth Table • Logic diagram: a graphical representation of a circuit • Each type of gate is represented by a specific graphical symbol • Truth table: defines the function of a gate by listing all possible input combinations that the gate could encounter, and the corresponding output

17. Gates • Let’s examine the processing of the following six types of gates • NOT • AND • OR • XOR • NAND • NOR

18. NOT Gate • A NOT gate accepts one input value and produces one output value Figure 4.1 Various representations of a NOT gate

19. NOT Gate • By definition, if the input value for a NOT gate is 0, the output value is 1, and if the input value is 1, the output is 0 • A NOT gate is sometimes referred to as an inverter because it inverts the input value

20. AND Gate • An AND gate accepts two input signals • If the two input values for an AND gate are both 1, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0 Figure 4.2 Various representations of an AND gate

21. OR Gate • If the two input values are both 0, the output value is 0; otherwise, the output is 1 Figure 4.3 Various representations of a OR gate

22. XOR Gate • XOR, or exclusive OR, gate • An XOR gate produces 0 if its two inputs are the same, and a 1 otherwise • Note the difference between the XOR gate and the OR gate; they differ only in one input situation • When both input signals are 1, the OR gate produces a 1 and the XOR produces a 0

23. XOR Gate Figure 4.4 Various representations of an XOR gate

24. NAND and NOR Gates • The NAND and NOR gates are essentially the opposite of the AND and OR gates, respectively Figure 4.5 Various representations of a NAND gate Figure 4.6 Various representations of a NOR gate

28. Gates with More Inputs • Gates can be designed to accept three or more input values • A three-input AND gate, for example, produces an output of 1 only if all input values are 1 Figure 4.7 Various representations of a three-input AND gate

29. 3-Input And gate A B C Y 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 Y = A . B . C

30. Constructing Gates • A transistor is a device that acts, depending on the voltage level of an input signal, either as a wire that conducts electricity or as a resistor that blocks the flow of electricity • A transistor has no moving parts, yet acts like a switch • It is made of a semiconductor material, which is neither a particularly good conductor of electricity, such as copper, nor a particularly good insulator, such as rubber

31. Circuits • Two general categories • In a combinational circuit, the input values explicitly determine the output • In a sequential circuit, the output is a function of the input values as well as the existing state of the circuit • As with gates, we can describe the operations of entire circuits using three notations • Boolean expressions • logic diagrams • truth tables

32. Combinational Circuits • Gates are combined into circuits by using the output of one gate as the input for another AND OR AND Page 99

33. jasonm: Redo to get white space around table (p100) Combinational Circuits • Because there are three inputs to this circuit, eight rows are required to describe all possible input combinations • This same circuit using Boolean algebra: (AB + AC) Page 100

34. jasonm: Redo table to get white space (p101) Now let’s go the other way; let’s take a Boolean expression and draw • Consider the following Boolean expression: A(B + C) Page 100 Page 101 • Now compare the final result column in this truth table to the truth table for the previous example • They are identical

35. Simple design problem • A calculation has been done and its results • are stored in a 3-bit number • Check that the result is negative by anding • the result with the binary mask 100 • Hint: a “mask” is a value that is anded with • a value and leaves only the important bit

36. Using And gates to mask

37. Shorthand way to draw this • If the values shown had 32 bits, you would • have a lot of wires and and gates on the • drawing. • Here is a shorthand way to draw this:

38. Masked value Using And gates to mask

39. & and && in Java, C, C++ • & means AND, bit-by-bit • What we just did was the equivalent of • Y = A & B • && means AND, on a word, boolean basis • 101 && 010 is true • 101 & 010 is zero

40. Now let’s go the other way; let’s take a Boolean expression and draw • We have therefore just demonstrated circuit equivalence • That is, both circuits produce the exact same output for each input value combination • Boolean algebra allows us to apply provable mathematical principles to help us design logical circuits

41. jasonm: Redo table (p101) Properties of Boolean Algebra Page 101

42. Adders • At the digital logic level, addition is performed in binary • Addition operations are carried out by special circuits called, appropriately, adders

43. jasonm: Redo table (p103) Adders • The result of adding two binary digits could produce a carry value • Recall that 1 + 1 = 10 in base two • A circuit that computes the sum of two bits and produces the correct carry bit is called a half adder • Notice the Sum & Carry are NEVER both 1. (XOR) (AND) Page 103

44. Adders • Circuit diagram representing a half adder • Two Boolean expressions: sum = A  B carry = AB Page 103

45. Adders • A circuit called a full adder takes the carry-in value into account Figure 4.10 A full adder

46. Adding Many Bits • To add 2 8-bit values, we can duplicate a full-adder circuit 8 times. The carry-out from one place value is used as the carry in for the next place value. The value of the carry-in for the rightmost position is assumed to be zero, and the carry-out of the leftmost bit position is discarded (potentially creating an overflow error).

47. B A Q C Universal Gates How to use NOR gate to build a NOT gate? Truth Table Logic Gates Hint! Link inputs B & C together (to a same source). When A = 0, B = C = A = 0 When A = 1, B = C = A = 1

48. Universal Gates How to use NOR gates to build an OR gate? Truth Table NOT NOR D A C Q B E Hint 1 : Use 2 NOR gates Hint 2 : From a NOR gate, build a NOT gate Hint 3 : Put this “NOT” gate after a NOR gate

49. A C Q D B Universal Gates How to use NOR gates to build an AND gate? Truth Table Hint 1 : Use 3 NOR gates Hint 2 : From 2 NOR gates, build 2 NOT gates Hint 3 : Each “NOT” gate is an input to the 3rd NOR gate

50. A C E Q D B Universal Gates How to use NOR gates to build a NAND gate? Truth Table Hint 1 : Use 4 NOR gates Hint 2 : Use 3 NOR gates to build a NAND gate (previous lesson) Hint 3 : Use the 4th NOR gate to build a NOT gate Hint 4 : Insert “NOT” gate after “NAND” gate Hint 5 : NOT-NAND = AND