SOC254

1. SOC254 Science as practiced in Institutions Policy for sustainability

2. This lecture will cover Sustainability Policy... Institutional location of the production of science - norms and values in science - science and the value continuum - social control of science and its limits - social construction of science Policy - What is policy - Types of policy making and the application of evidence

3. Science in the 20th century • Escalation of industrial activity > late Modernity • WWII led to a huge expansion of scientific activity esp. in GB and USA • Post-war booming of investment > ‘Golden Age’

4. Science in the 20th Century... • Birth of new scientific agencies • 1960-70s levelling off + disillusionment • Military-industrial complex > industry in R&D • Silent Spring, birth of the environment movement

5. Organisation of science • Basic and applied research • Formal and informal groupings • Science / technology distinction • Academic science vs scientists in industry • Professionalization & associations • Growing commodification

6. CSIRO – Australian example • original formed in 1926 as CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) • CSIR conducted pioneering work in radar and radio astronomy • In 1956, our Dr Alan Walsh invented the atomic absorption spectrometer • During the 1960s - work on reducing fly nos • CSIRO researchers developed polymer banknotes in the 1980s • Currently CSIRO is leading the world in developing faster internet and wireless communications • http://www.csiro.au/

7. Merton – science as social enterprise Scientific norms… • Communalism – the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up IP rights in exchange for recognition and esteem (he used the term Communism, but had this notion of communalism in mind, not Marxism) • Universalism – claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality • Disinterestedness – scientists are rewarded for acting in ways that outwardly appear to be selfless • Organized skepticism – all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny

8. Norms and values in science • Merton’s four norms… an ideal? • On the ground: grittier… competition, greed, self interest etc. • Yet surprisingly: science is close to Merton’s norms in reality! • Science and the continuum of values… instrumental rationality, reductionism.. but also flexibility and adaptability

9. Merchants of doubt • Small subgroup of elite scientists allied with industry to create public doubt • Effective PR by these ‘experts’ • Deliberate damage to scientific consensus • Abusing journalistic balance • Misrepresentation of scientific knowledge for financial/social gain http://youtu.be/i1RyHTDycng

10. Social control of science • According to social constructivism science is shaped by society • Social control… how is it exerted? • Is our democratic framework good enough to face the challenges of governing science wisely?

11. Policy • Policy Introduction – key elements of policy within the Westminster system of government • What is policy? • Balancing science/evidence with other factors in making policy (competing rationalities) • Managing complexity – news forms of governance?

12. Policy involves... Perceptions based on competing forms of evidence Managing risk Making Judgements amidst complexity and uncertainty Politics

13. Policy and politics • Influence • Competing • political • stakeholders • and interests • Voters • NGOs • Business • State & local • Govts etc Government (majority party) Opposition plus cross benchers The Westminster system

14. Politics and policy Voters who elect... The Government whose policies are the basis for... Legislation which is... Implemented by the public service and... Impacts on society and the environment and... Affects the intentions of...

15. Policy • ...is concerned with the public and its problems (Dewey, 1927) • …” what governments do, why they do it and what difference it makes” (Dye, 1976, p1) • …refers to “all aspects of what is involved in providing policy direction for the work of the public sector. ….policy conception, the talk and work which goes into providing the formulation of policy directions, and all the talk, work and collaborations which goes into translating these directions into practice” (Yeatman 1998)

16. Policy is…. • …the process by which governments translate their political visions into programs and actions to deliver ‘outcomes’ – desired changes into the real world (Cabinet Office, 1999)

17. Analysis of and analysis for policy • Analysis for the policy process – use of analysis and research to inform policy processes. • Analysis of the policy process – problem definition, agendas, policy formulation, decisions made and implemented and evaluation. (Parsons, 1995, p xvi)

18. The policy process(Dovers 2005) • Problem-solving Phases • problem recognition • proposal of solution • choice of solution • putting solution into effect • monitoring results • reframing problem • Policy cycle stages • agenda-setting • decision-making • policy formulation • policy implementation • policy evaluation • new policy cycle Critical element is learning and change over time

19. Key tasks in the social construction of environmental problems(Hannigan 1995)

20. Stages of the policy process • Defining the problem • Understanding the current evidence or knowledge foundation • Identifying the stakeholders • Identifying the potential courses of action to take • Predict the implications of these options • Chose of preferred option • Implementation

21. Policy models • Top down • Bottom up • Both ‘ideal types’ • Problem of ‘starting points’ • Competing knowledge and values

22. Rational process – Herbert Simon 1957 • Problem identified ‘at the top’ • Objectives are set – based on evidence • Options to address the objectives are identified and canvassed – analyzed through the evidence • Implementation process are structured and delivered optimally – with clear causal theory • Political and institutional support secured • Implementation tested and adjusted as needed

23. Rational decision making models – knowledge driven model • Knowledge directs the policy agenda and the decision making processes • Information and scientific inputs are rational responses to problems • Analysis drives decisions

24. Rational model and the role of evidence • A belief in the importance of collecting accurate facts about the social work as the basis for formulating government policies • Quantification and accurate statistics seen as essential to the definition of such facts • Adherence to a simple model of the relationship between social research and social reform; a model which posits a direct and unproblematic relationship between knowledge and reform. (Finch, 1986)

25. Bottom up – the science of muddling through (Lindblom – 1959) • Range of sources for problems to be addressed are identified • Multitude of actors • Unplanned process • Responds to circumstances • Implementation is messier • Adjustments happen in steps • Role of evidence competes with values, media, critical incidents

26. Other policy models • Tactical model – research is selectively used • Interactive model – more unpredictable – information is only one input • Political model – research has a relatively minor role • Enlightenment model – research has an indirect role – through awareness

27. Competing rationalities:Risk Vs Perceptions Community values & perceptions (as measured by social science) Environmental risk (as measured by biophysical science) Screamers Top drawer Water conservation Desalination Airport noise Air pollution, greenhouse & energy Sleepers Slow burners Land degradation & biodiversity Litter

28. Competing rationalities: Community perception and priorities(DECCW 2009)

29. Features of ‘wicked’ issues difficult to define – nature, extent and causes of the problem are debated often not stable and policy makers have to focus on a moving target many interdependencies, often multi-causal and require multi-disciplinary responses responsibility of several organisations - hardly ever sit conveniently within one may have internally conflicting goals that require trade-offs

30. More features of wicked issues attempts to address them often lead to unforeseen consequences have no clear solution, are rarely completely solved and it may be inappropriate to raise expectations that they will be solved are socially complex - it is often their social and organisational complexity rather than their technical complexity that makes them difficult to solve involve changing behaviour– this is difficult some are characterised by chronic policy failure and seem intractable.

31. Dealing with complexity (i) – governance and evaluation through distributed decision making and learning systems Participatory program management - multi-stakeholder; cross sectoral Multidisciplinary teams - edn, marcomms, policy, science, regulators Adaptive management - evidence-based decision-making, reflective practice, action research, learning communities and organisations

32. Dealing with complexity (ii) - Adaptive management

33. Case studies • NSW Marine parks • Wild horses in national parks • Murray Darling Basis • Climate Change

34. Guy Fawkes River National Park • The park was created in June 1972. It covers an area of 105,937 hectares. • 60 kilometres north-west of Dorrigo, off the Armidale to Grafton Road. • Management documents - plans of management - natural environments, Aboriginal heritage, history, and recreational opportunities in a particular park. • Fire management strategies. • Guy Fawkes River National Park: horse management plan • Guy Fawkes River National Park: plan of management